Francis Fukuyama: the end of history

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Nation-Building: Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq by Francis Fukuyama

Berlin Wall, business climate, colonial rule, conceptual framework, en.wikipedia.org, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Future Shock, Gunnar Myrdal, informal economy, land reform, managed futures, microcredit, open economy, operational security, rolling blackouts, Seymour Hersh, unemployed young men

She holds a B.A. in social studies from Harvard University and an M.Litt. in international relations from Balliol College, Oxford University. Francis Fukuyama is Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) of the Johns Hopkins University. As of July 1, 2005, he is also the director of the International Development program at SAIS. Dr. Fukuyama has written widely on issues relating to questions concerning democratization and international political economy. His book, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 1992) has appeared in over twenty foreign editions. He is also the author of Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (Free Press, 1995), The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order (Free Press, 1999), and Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002).

Nation-Building Forum on Constructive Capitalism Francis Fukuyama, Series Editor Nation-Building Beyond Afghanistan and Iraq • • Edited by Francis Fukuyama The Johns Hopkins University Press • B A LT I M O R E • © 2006 The Johns Hopkins University Press All rights reserved. Published 2006 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4363 www.press.jhu.edu Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Nation-building : beyond Afghanistan and Iraq / edited by Francis Fukuyama. p. cm. “Product of a conference held at the Paul H.

See also the chapters by Michèle A. Flournoy and James Dobbins. 13. Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004). 14. Francis Fukuyama, “Nation-Building 101,” Atlantic Monthly, January/February 2004, 159–62. 15. James Fallows, “Blind into Baghdad,” Atlantic Monthly, January/February 2004, 52–77; Kenneth M. Pollack, “After Saddam: Assessing the Reconstruction of Iraq,” Saban Center Analysis Paper no. 1 (Washington, D.C.: Saban Center, 2004). 16. Woodward, Plan of Attack. • 15 • • Francis Fukuyama 17. Robert M. Perito, The American Experience with Police in Peace Operations (Clementsport, Canada: Canadian Peacekeeping Press, 2002). 18.


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Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution by Francis Fukuyama

Albert Einstein, Asilomar, assortative mating, Berlin Wall, bioinformatics, caloric restriction, caloric restriction, classic study, Columbine, cotton gin, demographic transition, digital divide, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, impulse control, life extension, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, out of africa, Peter Singer: altruism, phenotype, precautionary principle, presumed consent, Ray Kurzweil, Recombinant DNA, Scientific racism, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), sexual politics, stem cell, Steven Pinker, Stuart Kauffman, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, Turing test, twin studies

Weightman, June 24, 1826, in The Life and Selected Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Jefferson (New York: Modern Library, 1944), pp. 729–730. 7 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 8 Ithiel de Sola Pool, Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard/Belknap, 1983). 9 On this point, see Leon Kass, “Introduction: The Problem of Technology,” in Technology in the Western Political Tradition, ed. Arthur M. Melzer et al. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 10–14. 10 See Francis Fukuyama, “Second Thoughts: The Last Man in a Bottle,” The National Interest, no. 56 (Summer 1999): 16–33.

See David Sloan Wilson and Elliott Sober, Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998). 35 For an overview, see Francis Fukuyama, “The Old Age of Mankind,” in The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). CHAPTER 8: HUMAN NATURE 1 Paul Ehrlich, Human Natures: Genes, Cultures, and the Human Prospect (Washington, D.C./Covelo, Calif.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2000), p. 330. See Francis Fukuyama, review of Ehrlich in Commentary, February 2001. 2 David L. Hull, “On Human Nature,” in David L. Hull and Michael Ruse, eds., The Philosophy of Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 387. 3 Alexander Rosenberg, for example, argues that there are no “essential” characteristics of species because all species exhibit variance, and the median point of a range of variance does not constitute an essence.

CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DIGNITY 1 Clive Staples Lewis, The Abolition of Man (New York: Touchstone, 1944), p. 85. 2 Counsel of Europe, Draft Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, On the Prohibiting of Cloning Human Beings, Doc. 7884, July 16, 1997. 3 This is the theme of the second part of Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 4 For an interpretation of this passage in Tocqueville, see Francis Fukuyama, “The March of Equality,” Journal of Democracy 11 (2000): 11–17. 5 John Paul II, “Message to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences,” October 22, 1996. 6 Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin’s Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), pp. 35–39; see also Ernst Mayr, One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 40–42. 7 Michael Ruse and David L.


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Zero-Sum Future: American Power in an Age of Anxiety by Gideon Rachman

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, Asian financial crisis, bank run, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bonfire of the Vanities, borderless world, Bretton Woods, BRICs, capital controls, carbon tax, centre right, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, colonial rule, currency manipulation / currency intervention, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, energy security, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Glass-Steagall Act, global reserve currency, Global Witness, Golden arches theory, Great Leap Forward, greed is good, Greenspan put, Hernando de Soto, illegal immigration, income inequality, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Jeff Bezos, laissez-faire capitalism, Live Aid, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Mikhail Gorbachev, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, offshore financial centre, Oklahoma City bombing, open borders, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, peak oil, pension reform, plutocrats, popular capitalism, price stability, RAND corporation, reserve currency, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Sinatra Doctrine, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, Tax Reform Act of 1986, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Myth of the Rational Market, Thomas Malthus, Timothy McVeigh, trickle-down economics, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, zero-sum game

Quoted in Derek Chollet and James Goldgeier, America Between the Wars: From 11/9 to 9/11 (New York: PublicAffairs, 2008), 195. 10. DEMOCRACY: FRANCIS FUKUYAMA AND THE END OF HISTORY 1. Bloom’s book was published in 1987. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987). 2. Interview with the author, Washington, D.C. May 27, 2009. 3. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, June 1989. The article was subsequently turned into a book, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992). 4. Ibid. 5. See for example Vince Cable, The Storm: The World Economic Crisis and What It Means (London: Atlantic Books, 2009), 3, and Robert Kagan, The Return of History and the End of Dreams (London: Atlantic Books, 2008). 6.

In Washington, D.C., Francis Fukuyama came up with a surprising answer. Reflecting on his end-of-history thesis in 2009, twenty years after the publication of the original article, Fukuyama mused that one respect in which he might have gone wrong was that “I kind of assumed that American power would be used wisely.” In the aftermath of the Bush administration, that no longer seemed a safe assumption. And the man who twenty years earlier had been seen as the very epitome of American triumphalism argued that “the End of History was never about Reaganism, you know … the true exemplar of the End of History is the European Union, not the United States, because the European Union is trying to transcend sovereignty and power politics; it’s trying to replace that with the global rule of law, and that’s what ought to happen at the end of history.”25 In Brussels, capital of the EU, there were plenty of people who did indeed see the global economic crisis as a unique opportunity to push a distinctively European view of the world. 20 GLOBAL GOVERNMENT THE WORLD AS EUROPE The idea that the European Union might represent the culmination of world history is depressing.

Strobe Talbott’s The Great Experiment: The Story of Ancient Empires, Modern States, and the Quest for a Global Nation (Simon & Schuster, 2008) goes all the way back to ancient Greece, but also offers some lively insights into the Clinton era and some interesting reflections on the problem of global governance. Anyone wanting to understand the “end of history” debate has to go back to Francis Fukuyama’s original work, The End of History and the Last Man (Penguin, 1992). Fukuyama’s later disavowal of neoconservatism, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (Yale, 2006) is also well worth reading. The best thing to read on Alan Greenspan is Greenspan’s own surprisingly compulsive memoir, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World (Penguin, 2007).


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After Europe by Ivan Krastev

affirmative action, bank run, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, central bank independence, classic study, clean water, conceptual framework, creative destruction, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, job automation, mass immigration, meritocracy, moral panic, open borders, post-work, postnationalism / post nation state, public intellectual, Silicon Valley, Slavoj Žižek, The Brussels Effect, too big to fail, Wolfgang Streeck, World Values Survey, Y Combinator

Chapter 1 1. José Saramago, Death with Interruptions (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2005). 2. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” in The National Interest, Summer 1989. 3. Ken Jowitt, “After Leninism: The New World Disorder,” Journal of Democracy 2 (Winter 1991): 11–20. Jowitt later elaborated his ideas in The New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); see esp. chapters 7–9. 4. Ibid., 310. 5. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” in The National Interest, Summer 1989. 6. Harry Kreisler interview with Ken Jowitt, “Doing Political Theory,” Conversations with History, Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley (Regents of the University of California, 2000). http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Jowitt/jowitt-con5.html. 7.

Shared memories of the Second World War, for example, have faded from view: half of all fifteen- and sixteen-year-olds in German high schools don’t even know that Hitler was a dictator, while a third believe that he protected human rights. As Timur Vermes’s 2011 satirical novel Look Who’s Back suggests, the question is no longer whether it’s possible for Hitler to come back; it’s whether we’d even be able to recognize him. The novel sold more than a million copies in Germany. “The end of history” that Francis Fukuyama promised us in 1989 may well have arrived, but in the perverse sense that historical experience no longer matters and few are really interested in it.6 The geopolitical rationale for European unity vanished with the Soviet Union’s collapse. And Putin’s Russia, threatening as it may be, cannot fill this existential void.

The opening represented a dramatic instance of surprise, a moment when structures both literal and figurative crumbled unexpectedly. A series of accidents, some of them mistakes so minor that they might otherwise have been trivialities.”11 The end of communism is thus less effectively explained by Francis Fukuyama’s narrative of “the end of history” than it is by Harold Macmillan’s “events, my dear boy, events.” It is the experience of the Soviet collapse that in myriad aspects defines the way eastern Europeans perceive what is taking place today. Witnessing the political turmoil in Europe, we have a sinking feeling that we have been through this before—the only difference being that then it was their world that collapsed.


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America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy by Francis Fukuyama

affirmative action, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, European colonialism, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, information security, Internet Archive, John Perry Barlow, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, New Journalism, no-fly zone, oil-for-food scandal, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, transaction costs, uranium enrichment, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus

See realistic Wilsonian-ism Wohlstetter, Albert, 21, 31-36 Wohlstetter, Roberta, 87 Wolfowitz, Paul, 12, 14, 21, 31 Wolfson, Adam, 2 8 women's empowerment, 120 World Bank, 145, 147 World Intellectual Property Organization, 44 World Trade Organization (WTO), 44 Yushchenko, Viktor, 5 2 Zakaria, Fareed, 140 Zarqawi, Abu Musab al-, 181 226 approach to American foreign policy through 4vhich such mistakes might be turned around — one in which the positive aspects of the neo-conservative legacy are joined with a more rfealistic view of the way American power can Ipe used around the world. Francis Fukuyama is Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of .International Political Economy and director of the International Development Program at the School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University. He has written widely on political and economic development, and his previous books include the End of History and the Last Man, a best seller and the winner of the Los Angeles Times Book Prize. fURE SERIES

See also Dani Rodrik and Arvind Subramanian, "The Primacy of Institutions (And What This Does and Does Not Mean)," Finance and Development 40, no. 2 (2003): 31-34. William R. Easterly and Ross Levine, Tropics, Germs, and Crops: How Endowments Influence Economic Development, NBER Working Paper 9106, 2002. 13. Francis Fukuyama and Sanjay Marwah, "Comparing East Asia and Latin America: Dimensions of Development, " Journal of Democracy 11, no. 4 (2000): 80-94; Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-First Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 14. Francis Fukuyama, "'Stateness' First," Journal of Democracy 16, no. 1 (2005): 84-88. 15. For a historical overview, see Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003). 16.

This book made available by the Internet Archive. Parts of this book were given as the Castle Lectures in Yale's Program in Ethics, Politics, and Economics, delivered by Francis Fukuyama in 2005. The Castle Lectures were endowed by Mr. John K. Castle. They honor his ancestor the Reverend James Pierpont, one of Yale's original founders. Given by established public figures, Castle Lectures are intended to promote reflection on the moral foundations of society and government and to enhance understanding of ethical issues facing individuals in our complex modern society. *<^\jiii,\,ni,o 7 A Different Kind of American Foreign Policy 181 notes 195 INDEX 217 vm Preface The subject of this book is American foreign policy since the al-Qaida attacks of September 11, 2001.


Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States by Francis Fukuyama

Andrei Shleifer, Atahualpa, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, British Empire, business climate, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, collective bargaining, colonial rule, conceptual framework, creative destruction, crony capitalism, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Hernando de Soto, income inequality, income per capita, land reform, land tenure, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, New Urbanism, oil shock, open economy, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, rent-seeking, Ronald Reagan, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, total factor productivity, trade liberalization, transaction costs, upwardly mobile, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

His most recent publications include Cuba hoy: Analizando su pasado, imaginando su futuro (2006); and, as coeditor with B. K. Kim, Between Compliance and Conflict: East Asia, Latin America, and the “New” Pax Americana (2005). Francis Fukuyama is director of the International Development Program and Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of International Political Economy at the Johns Hopkins University Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies. Among his most salient works are The End of History and the Last Man (1992); State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (2004); and America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (2006).

The Latin American Equilibrium, 161 James A. Robinson 8. Do Defective Institutions Explain the Development Gap between the United States and Latin America?, 194 Francis Fukuyama 9. Why Institutions Matter: Fiscal Citizenship in Argentina and the United States, 222 Natalio R. Botana 10. Conclusion, 268 Francis Fukuyama Contributors, 297 Index, 301 xiv Contents falling behind This page intentionally left blank 1 Introduction francis fukuyama I n 1492, on the eve of the European settlement and colonization of the New World, Bolivia and Peru hosted richer and more complex civilizations than any that existed in North America.

Thanks are also due to Valeria Sobrino, who provided key logistical support, and Charles Roberts, who translated into English all of the chapters originally written in Spanish. Finally, special recognition is due to Guadalupe Paz, associate director of the Latin American Studies Program at SAIS, for her help in editing the English version of this volume and her general support of the project as a whole. Francis Fukuyama This page intentionally left blank Contents 1. Introduction, 3 Francis Fukuyama Part I: The Historical Context 2. Two Centuries of South American Reflections on the Development Gap between the United States and Latin America, 11 Tulio Halperin Donghi 3. Looking at Them: A Mexican Perspective on the Gap with the United States, 48 Enrique Krauze 4.


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The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution by Francis Fukuyama

Admiral Zheng, agricultural Revolution, Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blood diamond, California gold rush, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, conceptual framework, correlation does not imply causation, currency manipulation / currency intervention, Day of the Dead, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, double entry bookkeeping, endogenous growth, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Garrett Hardin, Hernando de Soto, hiring and firing, invention of agriculture, invention of the printing press, John Perry Barlow, Khyber Pass, land reform, land tenure, means of production, offshore financial centre, out of africa, Peace of Westphalia, principal–agent problem, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, Right to Buy, Scramble for Africa, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), spice trade, Stephen Hawking, Steven Pinker, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Thomas Malthus, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

ALSO BY FRANCIS FUKUYAMA America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity The End of History and the Last Man NOTES PREFACE 1 Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies. With a New Foreword by Francis Fukuyama (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006). 2 Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 3 On redistributive economic systems in general, see Karl Polanyi, “The Economy as an Instituted Process,” in Polanyi and C.

In addition to being unable to resolve the fundamental dilemma of the free rider problem we cannot explain the enormous investment that every society makes in legitimacy.” Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Norton, 1981), pp. 46–47. 31 Trivers, “Reciprocal Altruism.” 32 On this general topic, see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), chap. 13–17. 33 Robert H. Frank, Choosing the Right Pond: Human Behavior and the Quest for Status (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). 34 Ibid., pp. 21–25. Conversely, low-status human beings often suffer from chronic depression and have been successfully treated with Prozac, Zoloft, and other so-called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which increase levels of brain serotonin.

Three Books Against the Simoniacs (Humbert of Moyenmoutier) Three Dynasties Three Gorges Dam Three Kingdoms Tibet Tiger, Lionel Tilly, Charles Time of Troubles Timor-Leste Tocqueville, Alexis de Togo Tokugawa shogunate Tolstoy, Leo Tonga Tönnies, Ferdinand Tower of Babel, biblical story of Transoxania Transparency International Transylvania tribal societies; Arab; Chinese; European; Indian; in Latin America; law and justice in; legitimacy in; military slavery and; mitigation of conflict in; persistence to present day of; property in; religion in; state-level societies compared to; transition from or band-level organization to; Turkish; warfare and conquest by; see also kinship; lineage; specific tribes Trivers, Robert Trobriand Islands Tudors Tunisia Tuoba tribe Turcoman tribes Turenne, Henri de La Tour d’Auvergne, Vicomte de Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turkana people Turkish Republic Turks; in Abbasid empire; in China; in Hungary; in India; in Transylvania; see also Ottoman Empire Tursun Bey Tylor, Edward Ukraine ulama Umar, Caliph Umayyad dynasty United Nations United States; accountability in; Afghanistan and; antistatist traditions in; bureaucracy in; during cold war; dysfunctional political equilibrium in; economic crises in; homicide in; invasion of Iraq by; Japan and; local governments in; military of; modernization theory in; patronage politics in; per capital spending on government services in; rule of law in; slavery in; South Korea and; taxation in Urban II, Pope urban centers, see cities Uthman, Caliph Uzbekistan Vaishyas Vanuatu Varangians Vedas Velasco, Andres Vena, King venal officeholding: in England; in France; in Russia; in Spain Venezuela Venice, republic of Vietnam Vikings Vinogradoff, Paul violence; in agrarian societies; in chimpanzee society; in China; as driver of state formation; in England; in France; in India; in prehistoric societies; property rights and; religion and; in Russia; in state of nature; see also war Vladimir, Prince Voltaire Vorontsov, Count Vrijjis, gana-sangha chiefdom of Wahhabism Wales Wallis, John Wang, Empress of China Wang family Wang Mang Wanli emperor waqfs (Muslim charity) war; civil, see civil war; counterinsurgency; financing of; institutional innovations brought on by; in Malthusian world; in Muslim states; prisoners of; religion and; state formation driven by; in state of nature; technology of; tribal; see also specific wars War and Peace (Tolstoy) Warring States period; cities during; cultural outpourings during; education and literacy during; infantry/cavalry warfare during; kinship groupings during; map of; road and canal construction during Wealth of Nations, The (Smith) Weber, Max; on bureaucracy; on charismatic authority; on feudalism; modernization theory of; on religion Wei, state of Wei Dynasty Weingast, Barry Wei state well-field system Wen, Emperor of China Wendi, Emperor of China Westphalia, Peace of Whig history White, Leslie William I, King of England William III (William of Orange), King of England Wittfogel, Karl Woolcock, Michael World Bank World Trade Organization World War I Worms, Concordat of Wrangham, Richard Wriston, Walter Wu, Emperor of China Wu Zhao (Empress Wu) Xia Dynasty Xian, Duke Xianbei tribe Xiang Yu Xiao, Duke Xiao-wen, Emperor of China Xin dynasty Xiongnu tribe Xi Xia tribe Xu, Empress of China Xun Zi Yale University Yan, Empress of China Yangdi, Emperor of China Yang family Yang Jian Yangshao period Yanomamö Indians Y chromosome Yellow Turban rebellion Ying Zheng Young Turk movement Yuan Dynasty Yuezhi Yugoslavia Yurok Indians Yushchenko, Viktor Zaire Zakaria, Fareed zemskiy sobor zero-sum games Zhang Shicheng Zhao Kuangyin Zheng He Zhongzong, Emperor of China Zhou Dynasty; bureaucracy during; Confucianism during; Eastern (see also Spring and Autumn period; Warring States period); feudalism of; Later; Mandate of Heaven and; Western Zhu Yuangzhang Zi Chan Zoloft Zoroastrianism A NOTE ABOUT THE AUTHOR Francis Fukuyama is the Olivier Nomellini Senior Fellow at Stanford University’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Resident at the Center for Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law. He has taught at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of Johns Hopkins University and at the George Mason University School of Public Policy. He was a researcher at the RAND Corporation and served as the deputy director in the State Department’s policy planning staff. He is the author of The End of History and the Last Man, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, and America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy.


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Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy by Francis Fukuyama

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, Atahualpa, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blood diamond, British Empire, centre right, classic study, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, colonial rule, conceptual framework, Cornelius Vanderbilt, cotton gin, crony capitalism, Day of the Dead, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, disruptive innovation, double entry bookkeeping, Edward Snowden, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, facts on the ground, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, Hernando de Soto, high-speed rail, Home mortgage interest deduction, household responsibility system, income inequality, information asymmetry, invention of the printing press, iterative process, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, labour management system, land reform, land tenure, life extension, low interest rates, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, means of production, Menlo Park, Mohammed Bouazizi, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, Nelson Mandela, new economy, open economy, out of africa, Peace of Westphalia, Port of Oakland, post-industrial society, post-materialism, price discrimination, quantitative easing, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Scientific racism, Scramble for Africa, Second Machine Age, Silicon Valley, special economic zone, stem cell, subprime mortgage crisis, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade route, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Vilfredo Pareto, women in the workforce, work culture , World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Wilson, Woodrow “winner-take-all” society Wolfenson, James Woolcock, Michael workers working class; conversion into middle class; voting by World Bank; Worldwide Governance Indicators World Bank Institute World Values Survey World War I World War II; Japan’s defeat in Wrong, Michela Wu Zhao Xi Jinping Yamagata Aritomo Yang, Dali Yang, Hongxing Yanukovich, Viktor Yar’Adua, Umaru Musa Yemen Yrigoyen, Hipólito Yugoslavia Zaire Zakaria, Fareed Zambia Zanzibar Zenawi, Meles Zhao, Dingxin Zhou Enlai Zhu Yuangzhang Zimbabwe ALSO BY FRANCIS FUKUYAMA The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity The End of History and the Last Man About the Author Francis Fukuyama is the Olivier Nomellini Senior Fellow at Stanford University’s Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies.

Nitze School of Advanced International Studies of the Johns Hopkins University and at the George Mason University School of Public Policy. Fukuyama was a researcher at the RAND Corporation and served on the State Department’s Policy Planning Staff. He is the author of The Origins of Political Order, The End of History and the Last Man, Trust, and America at the Crossroads. He lives with his wife in California. Farrar, Straus and Giroux 18 West 18th Street, New York 10011 Copyright © 2014 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved First edition, 2014 eBooks may be purchased for business or promotional use. For information on bulk purchases, please contact Macmillan Corporate and Premium Sales Department by writing to MacmillanSpecialMarkets@macmillan.com.

Gellner makes the comparison of European nationalism and Middle Eastern Islamism in Nations and Nationalism, pp. 75–89. A variant of this argument is also made in Olivier Roy, Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004). See also Francis Fukuyama, “Identity, Immigration, and Liberal Democracy,” Journal of Democracy 17, no. 2 (2006): 5–20. 30: THE MIDDLE CLASS AND DEMOCRACY’S FUTURE 1. This chapter expands on Francis Fukuyama, “The Future of History,” Foreign Affairs 91, no. 1 (2012): 53–61. 2. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, p. 124. Gellner also makes this argument in Culture, Identity, and Politics. See also Fukuyama, “Identity, Immigration, and Liberal Democracy.” 3.


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The Abandonment of the West by Michael Kimmage

Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Charles Lindbergh, City Beautiful movement, classic study, deindustrialization, desegregation, disinformation, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global pandemic, global supply chain, Gunnar Myrdal, interchangeable parts, Isaac Newton, It's morning again in America, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, Paris climate accords, Peace of Westphalia, profit motive, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, RAND corporation, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas L Friedman, transatlantic slave trade, urban planning, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus

Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, 322, 320, 321, 380, 256. 31. Bloom, Closing of the American Mind, 312, 79, 382. 32. See Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18; and Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 33. On the CIA and Nelson Mandela, see Borstelmann, Cold War and the Color Line, 156. 34. Fukuyama, End of History, 323, 48. 35. Fukuyama, End of History, xiii, 7, 48. 36. Fukuyama, End of History, 18. 37. Fukuyama, End of History, 45. CHAPTER SIX: THE POST–COLUMBIAN REPUBLIC, 1992–2016 1. McNeill, Pursuit of Truth, 133, 136. 2.

The romance of the American West signaled the application of European power, technology and law outside of Europe. It was civilization on the frontier, the opposite of civilization as decadence or overrefinement, civilization honored in the breach, mythically vigorous and thrilling. (Francis Fukuyama would conclude the End of History [1992] with a long comparison of the Western triumph after 1989 and the winning of the American West in the nineteenth century.) The historical reality was distressingly at odds with Teddy Roosevelt’s Western romance: the suppression of Native peoples and the theft of their land, the crimes of civilizational entitlement and of empire.

Perhaps the victorious West could absolve itself of its own guilt, of American misdeeds in Vietnam or of Europe’s misdeeds in Africa, in a new birth of freedom outside of Europe. Simplified story lines in Eastern Europe and Africa alike, these simultaneous liberations were the most captivating news of 1989 and 1990.33 Liberation had great currency for the author of The End of History and the Last Man. From the nineteenth-century German philosopher Hegel, Francis Fukuyama adopted the notion that all people seek recognition in addition to physical well-being. Tracking this notion, Fukuyama regarded much human history until the Renaissance as deformed by a master-slave dynamic. A few masters robbed the many slaves of recognition.


pages: 254 words: 68,133

The Age of Illusions: How America Squandered Its Cold War Victory by Andrew J. Bacevich

affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, clean water, Columbian Exchange, Credit Default Swap, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global village, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Greenspan put, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jeff Bezos, Kickstarter, Marshall McLuhan, mass incarceration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Occupy movement, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, planetary scale, plutocrats, Potemkin village, price stability, Project for a New American Century, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Saturday Night Live, school choice, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, traumatic brain injury, trickle-down economics, We are all Keynesians now, WikiLeaks

“Responses to Fukuyama,” National Interest (Summer 1989). 30. Strobe Talbott, “The Beginning of Nonsense,” Time (September 11, 1989). 31. For contemporaneous synopses of that debate, see Henry Allen, “The End. Or Is It? Francis Fukuyama and the Schism over His Ism,” Washington Post (September 27, 1989); and Richard Bernstein, “The End of History, Explained for the Second Time,” New York Times (December 10, 1989). 32. Francis Fukuyama, “After Neoconservatism,” New York Times Magazine (February 19, 2006). 3. KICKING 41 TO THE CURB 1. For a colorful contemporaneous account of Trump’s troubles, see Marie Brenner, “After the Gold Rush,” Vanity Fair (September 1990). 2.

Just three months prior to the opening of the Berlin Wall, an article published in the National Interest, a Washington-based quarterly of meager circulation, had created among policy intellectuals a remarkable stir. The author was Francis Fukuyama, hitherto a little-known policy analyst. The title of the piece that vaulted him to instantaneous fame: “The End of History?” The cautious question mark reflected an editorial misjudgment. Given the essay’s expansive claims and eventual impact, an exclamation point would have been far more appropriate. As a milestone in American intellectual history, Fukuyama’s essay belongs in the category of writings that capture something essential about the moment in which they appear, while simultaneously shaping expectations about what lies ahead.

For an important and underappreciated accounting, incorporating both second thoughts and sober reflection, see Derek Leebaert, The Fifty-Year Wound (New York, 2002). 21. Alfred Thayer Mahan, “The United States Looking Outward,” Atlantic (December 1890). 22. Frederick Jackson Turner, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893). 23. Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden” (1899). 24. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest (Summer 1989). 25. “X” [George F. Kennan], “The Sources of Soviet Conduct,” Foreign Affairs (July 1947). 26. Walter Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Harper, 1947). For an excerpt, see https://www.learner.org/workshops/primarysources/coldwar/docs/lippman.html, accessed July 12, 2017. 27.


pages: 223 words: 58,732

The Retreat of Western Liberalism by Edward Luce

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, affirmative action, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, bread and circuses, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, business cycle, call centre, carried interest, centre right, Charles Lindbergh, cognitive dissonance, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, computer age, corporate raider, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, double entry bookkeeping, driverless car, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, Evgeny Morozov, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gentrification, George Santayana, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, illegal immigration, imperial preference, income inequality, independent contractor, informal economy, Internet of things, Jaron Lanier, knowledge economy, lateral thinking, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, means of production, meritocracy, microaggression, Monroe Doctrine, moral panic, more computing power than Apollo, mutually assured destruction, new economy, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, offshore financial centre, one-China policy, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, precariat, purchasing power parity, reserve currency, reshoring, Richard Florida, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Skype, Snapchat, software is eating the world, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, superstar cities, telepresence, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, unpaid internship, Washington Consensus, We are the 99%, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, white flight, World Values Survey, Yogi Berra

In 1989 its schism was healed. By unifying its booming western wing with the shrivelled post-Stalinist eastern one, there was no longer any quarrel between the present and the present. Shortly before the Berlin Wall fell, Francis Fukuyama published his famous essay, ‘The End of History?’. ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War . . . but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government,’ he wrote.1 Though I did not subscribe to Fukuyama’s view of the ideal society I shared his relief.

It would be lethal malpractice to continue writing off half of society as hidebound. Someone once said that the difference between erotica and pornography is the lighting. There is an equally hazy line between illiberal democracy and autocracy. We will know the difference when we see it. NOTES Preface 1 Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (summer 1989). 2 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes, 1941–1991 (Abacus, London, 1995). 3 Dan Jones, Magna Carta: The Birth of Liberty (Viking, New York, 2015), p. 4. 4 Interview with the author, January 2017. 5 Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World: And the Rise of the Rest (Penguin, New York, 2009). 6 Henry Kissinger, World Order (Penguin, New York, 2014).

Since the turn of the millennium, and particularly over the last decade, no fewer than twenty-five democracies have failed around the world, three of them in Europe (Russia, Turkey and Hungary). In all but Tunisia, the Arab Spring was swallowed by the summer heat. Is the Western god of liberal democracy failing? ‘It is an open question whether this is a market correction in democracy, or a global depression,’ Francis Fukuyama tells me.4 The backlash of the West’s middle classes, who are the biggest losers in a global economy that has been rapidly converging, but still has decades to go, has been brewing since the early 1990s. In Britain we call them the ‘left-behinds’. In France, they are the ‘couches moyennes’. In America, they are the ‘squeezed middle’.


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Why Liberalism Failed by Patrick J. Deneen

classic study, David Brooks, Donald Trump, en.wikipedia.org, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, intentional community, Lewis Mumford, mortgage debt, Nicholas Carr, plutocrats, price mechanism, rolling blackouts, Ronald Reagan, shared worldview, Steven Levy, the scientific method, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

Nicholas Carr, The Shallows: What the Internet Is Doing to our Brains (New York: Norton, 2010). 3. Sherry Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (New York: Basic, 2011). 4. Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology (New York: Vintage, 1993). 5. Ibid., 28. 6. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992); Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002). 7. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Republic of Technology: Reflections on Our Future Community (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 5. 8. Stephen Marche, “Is Facebook Making Us Lonely?”

Liberalism is credited with the cessation of religious war, the opening of an age of tolerance and equality, the expanding spheres of personal opportunity and social interaction that today culminate in globalization, and the ongoing victories over sexism, racism, colonialism, heteronormativity, and a host of other unacceptable prejudices that divide, demean, and segregate. Liberalism’s victory was declared to be unqualified and complete in 1989 in the seminal article “The End of History” by Francis Fukuyama, written following the collapse of the last competing ideological opponent.5 Fukuyama held that liberalism had proved itself the sole legitimate regime on the basis that it had withstood all challengers and defeated all competitors and further, that it worked because it accorded with human nature.

The culture offers entertaining prophecies born of our anxieties, and we take perverse pleasure distracting ourselves with portrayals of our powerlessness. One example of this genre of technological (as well as political) inevitability, albeit framed in a triumphalist mode, is the narrative advanced by Francis Fukuyama in his famous essay, and later book, The End of History. The book, in particular, provides a long materialist explanation of the inescapable scientific logic, driven by the need for constant advances in military technology, contributing to the ultimate rise of the liberal state. Only the liberal state, in Fukuyama’s view, could provide the environment for the open scientific inquiry that has led to the greatest advances in military devices and tactics.


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The Great Surge: The Ascent of the Developing World by Steven Radelet

Admiral Zheng, agricultural Revolution, Asian financial crisis, bank run, Berlin Wall, biodiversity loss, Boeing 747, Branko Milanovic, business climate, business process, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, clean water, colonial rule, creative destruction, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Doha Development Round, Erik Brynjolfsson, European colonialism, export processing zone, F. W. de Klerk, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, income inequality, income per capita, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of the steam engine, James Watt: steam engine, John Snow's cholera map, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, land reform, low interest rates, low skilled workers, M-Pesa, megacity, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, off grid, oil shock, out of africa, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, randomized controlled trial, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, Shenzhen special economic zone , Sheryl Sandberg, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, special economic zone, standardized shipping container, Steven Pinker, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, three-masted sailing ship, trade route, women in the workforce, working poor

John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, “The State of the State: The Global Contest for the Future of Government,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2014, p. 119. 3. Samuel Huntington, “Democracy’s Third Wave,” Journal of Democracy 2, no. 2 (Spring 1991): 15–16, www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/IntPol/Huntington.91.Demo.3rd.pdf/. 4. Francis Fukuyama, “At the ‘End of History’ Still Stands Democracy,” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/at-the-end-of-history-still-stands-democracy-1402080661. 5. Alan Neuhauser, “U.S., China Reach Historic Climate Accord,” U.S. News and World Report, November 12, 2014, www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/11/12/us-china-reach-historic-climate-change-accord. 6.

—George Soros, chairman of Soros Fund Management “Steven Radelet’s brilliant new book demonstrates how the world has actually gotten better in recent years, not by a little but by a lot. This is a careful antidote to today’s fashionable pessimism and should be read by everyone.” —Francis Fukuyama, author of The End of History “With the airwaves filled with news of insurrection, desperation and stubborn diseases, this book jars you out of a cliched response. With his typical care and detail, Steve describes humanity’s greatest hits over the last twenty years—never have we lived in a time when so many are doing so well.

People around the world could watch in real time as Marcos boarded a plane to flee to Hawaii, Chinese protestors stood up in Tiananmen Square, the Berlin Wall fell, governments in Eastern Europe collapsed, and Mandela walked out of jail. By the early 1990s, dramatic change had begun, as political scientist and author Francis Fukuyama described in his masterpiece The End of History and the Last Man: The most remarkable development of the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the revelation of enormous weaknesses at the core of the world’s seemingly strong dictatorships, whether they be of the military-authoritarian Right, or the communist-totalitarian Left.


American Secession: The Looming Threat of a National Breakup by F. H. Buckley

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, belling the cat, Bernie Sanders, British Empire, Cass Sunstein, colonial rule, crony capitalism, desegregation, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, guns versus butter model, hindsight bias, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, low interest rates, Michael Milken, military-industrial complex, old-boy network, Paris climate accords, race to the bottom, Republic of Letters, reserve currency, Ronald Coase, Stephen Fry, Suez crisis 1956, transaction costs, Washington Consensus, wealth creators

When a state liberalized its economy it would create a middle class that would demand political freedom. That seemed to be what had happened in Chile, when the freemarket Pinochet regime was followed by a liberal democracy. Insofar as this pattern was spreading around the globe, it represented what Francis Fukuyama called “the end of history,” the point where the big questions of politics have been settled. The best possible kind of state is one with a free-market economy and guarantees of personal and political liberty.1 That’s as good as it gets. But now China presents us with a rival model, a “Beijing Consensus,” granting its people economic freedoms while denying them political liberty.

Walter Kaufmann (New York: Penguin, 1954), pp. 226–27. 16 Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1954), p. 25. 17 Melanie Mason, “Single-payer healthcare could cost $400 billion to implement in California,” Los Angeles Times, May 22, 2017. CHAPTER 8—BIGNESS AND FREEDOM 1 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon, 1992), p. 204. 2 World Bank, State of the Poor, April 17, 2013. 3 George Orwell, “The Freedom of the Press,” unused preface to Animal Farm published in the Times Literary Supplement, September 15, 1972. 4 Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Part 2, Bk. 11.6, in Œuvres complètes (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p. 397. 5 Others are the Polity IV measure of constitutional democracy, Tatu Vanhalen’s assessment of participatory democracy, and the measure of contested democracy provided by Adam Przeworski and his colleagues.

—William Bennett, former Secretary of Education This is Buckley at his colorful, muckraking best—an intelligent, powerful, but depressing argument laced with humor. —Gordon S. Wood, Pulitzer Prize winner Praise for The Way Back: Restoring the Promise of America Frank Buckley marshals tremendous data and insight in a compelling study. —Francis Fukuyama Best book of the year. —Michael Anton Praise for The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America His prose explodes with energy. —James Ceasar THE LOOMING THREAT OF A NATIONAL BREAKUP American Secession F. H. BUCKLEY © 2020 by F.H. Buckley All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Encounter Books, 900 Broadway, Suite 601, New York, New York, 10003.


pages: 443 words: 125,510

The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities by John J. Mearsheimer

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Ayatollah Khomeini, Cass Sunstein, Chelsea Manning, Clive Stafford Smith, Donald Trump, drone strike, Edward Snowden, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, global village, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, invisible hand, laissez-faire capitalism, liberal world order, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, Peace of Westphalia, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, Steven Pinker, Suez crisis 1956, Ted Kaczynski, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs

Jeremy Waldron, “How Judges Should Judge,” review of Justice in Robes, by Ronald Dworkin, New York Review of Books, August 10, 2006. 34. Quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, pp. 296, 298, 338. 35. Quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, pp. 128, 294, 332, 334. Not surprisingly, Fukuyama is even less confident today about his 1989 predictions than he was when he wrote The End of History and the Last Man in 1992. See, for example, Francis Fukuyama, “At the ‘End of History’ Still Stands Democracy,” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2014. 36. Stephen Holmes, “The Scowl of Minerva,” New Republic, March 23, 1992, p. 28.

Until the Cold War ended, however, spreading liberal democracy always took a backseat to hard-nosed policies based on power politics, which sometimes involved overthrowing democratically elected leaders and having cozy relations with brutal autocrats. The United States, in other words, was not in a position to adopt liberal hegemony until 1989. 3. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18. Also see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 4. “The 1992 Campaign; Excerpts from Speech by Clinton on U.S. Role,” New York Times, October 2, 1992. 5. “President Discusses the Future of Iraq,” Hilton Hotel, Washington, DC, February 26, 2003.

To be fair, Dworkin understands that applying moral principles to hard cases will be an especially difficult task, which is why he calls his ideal judge “Hercules.” Ronald Dworkin, Law’s Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), pp. 238–40. 31. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. xii. The remaining quotes in this paragraph are from Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” pp. 4, 5, 18. 32. The quotes in this paragraph are from Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), pp. 182, 650, 662, 690–91. On page 692, Pinker, sounding like Fukuyama talking about the ineluctable spread of liberal democracy, writes that “many liberalizing reforms that originated in Western Europe or on the American coasts have been emulated, after a time lag, by the more conservative parts of the world.” 33.


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Ten Lessons for a Post-Pandemic World by Fareed Zakaria

"there is no alternative" (TINA), 15-minute city, AlphaGo, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-fragile, Asian financial crisis, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, butterfly effect, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon tax, central bank independence, clean water, cloud computing, colonial rule, contact tracing, coronavirus, COVID-19, Credit Default Swap, David Graeber, Day of the Dead, deep learning, DeepMind, deglobalization, Demis Hassabis, Deng Xiaoping, digital divide, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, Edward Glaeser, Edward Jenner, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, failed state, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gentrification, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global reserve currency, global supply chain, green new deal, hiring and firing, housing crisis, imperial preference, income inequality, Indoor air pollution, invention of the wheel, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Snow's cholera map, junk bonds, lockdown, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, manufacturing employment, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, middle-income trap, Monroe Doctrine, Nate Silver, Nick Bostrom, oil shock, open borders, out of africa, Parag Khanna, Paris climate accords, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, popular capitalism, Productivity paradox, purchasing power parity, remote working, reserve currency, reshoring, restrictive zoning, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, social distancing, software is eating the world, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, Suez crisis 1956, TED Talk, the built environment, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, UNCLOS, universal basic income, urban planning, Washington Consensus, white flight, Works Progress Administration, zoonotic diseases

,” New York Times, October 8, 2018. 62 “Another ideological god has failed”: Martin Wolf, “Seeds of Its Own Destruction: The Scope of Government Is Again Widening and the Era of Free-Wheeling Finance Is Over,” Financial Times, March 8, 2009. 62 “Capitalism will be different”: Joe Weisenthal, “Geithner Tells Charlie Rose: Capitalism Will Be Different,” Business Insider, March 11, 2009. 62 Could we do so again?: For another observer skeptical that this will mean a break with free market orthodoxy, see: Lane Kenworthy, “The Pandemic Won’t Usher In an American Welfare State,” Foreign Affairs, May 1, 2020. 63 “end of history”: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 63 “We can only harness”: President William J. Clinton, “Remarks on Signing the North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation Act,” December 8, 1993, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: William J. Clinton (1993, Book II), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PPP-1993-book2/html/PPP-1993-book2-doc-pg2139-3.htm. 63 “golden straitjacket”: Thomas L.

All societies from the earliest of times began with political systems that Max Weber famously described as “patrimonial,” meaning simply rule by a strongman. The regime was just his family, friends, and allies. Political power and economic power were fused, creating a system that was deeply unrepresentative yet effective. Francis Fukuyama describes the strength of patrimonial systems: “They are constructed using the basic building blocks of human sociability, that is, the biological inclination of people to favor family and friends with whom they have exchanged reciprocal favors.” The patrimonial system has deep roots in human society and has lasted through the millennia.

He begins with the failure of American government during the pandemic but goes well beyond it, asking why the United States can no longer imagine and execute large projects—building more housing and better infrastructure, reviving manufacturing at home, expanding higher education to millions more people, and so on. He offers some theories: inertia, a lack of imagination, and the influence of established incumbents wary of competition. But the real reason is much deeper than that. America has become what Francis Fukuyama calls a “vetocracy.” The system of checks and balances, replicated at every level of government, ensures that someone, somewhere can always block any positive action. The United States has become a nation of naysayers. Marc Dunkelman, a tenacious researcher, spent years digging into the history of efforts to renovate and rebuild Manhattan’s Pennsylvania Station.


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The Light That Failed: A Reckoning by Ivan Krastev, Stephen Holmes

active measures, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Andrei Shleifer, anti-communist, anti-globalists, bank run, Berlin Wall, Black Lives Matter, borderless world, Brexit referendum, corporate governance, David Brooks, deglobalization, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, failed state, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, kremlinology, liberal world order, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, Neil Armstrong, nuclear winter, obamacare, offshore financial centre, open borders, post-truth, postnationalism / post nation state, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, shared worldview, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, the market place, Thorstein Veblen, too big to fail, Twitter Arab Spring, WikiLeaks

Michiko Kakutani, The Death of Truth: Notes on Falsehood in the Age of Trump (Tim Duggan Books, 2018), p. 26. 12. Ben Rhodes, The World as It Is: A Memoir of the Obama White House (Random House, 2018). 13. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (Summer 1989), pp. 12, 3, 5, 8, 13; The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. 45. 14. Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, p. 12. 15. If describing American-style liberalism as the final stage of history felt unremarkable to many Americans, it felt the same not only to dissidents but also to ordinary people who grew up behind the Iron Curtain.

Special thanks go to our agent Toby Mundy and our editor Casiana Ionita for their steady encouragement and thoughtful advice. As usual, Yana Papazova’s tireless assistance proved invaluable. Notes INTRODUCTION: IMITATION AND ITS DISCONTENTS 1. Robert Cooper, ‘The Meaning of 1989’, The Prospect (20 December 1999). 2. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), p. 46. 3. Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Timothy Garton Ash, Free World: America, Europe, and the Surprising Future of the West (Random House, 2004). 4.

Bagger describes the West German consensus on this after 1989 as follows: ‘China would only be able to continue its miraculous economic rise if it introduced individual liberties. Only a free and open society could unleash the creativity that was at the core of economic innovation and success in the information age.’ Thomas Bagger, ‘The World According to Germany: Reassessing 1989’, Washington Quarterly (22 January 2019), p. 55. 8. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest (Summer 1989), p. 12. 9. ‘China is reversing the commonly held vision of technology as a great democratizer, bringing people more freedom and connecting them to the world. In China, it has brought control.’ Paul Mozur, ‘Inside China’s Dystopian Dreams: A.I., Shame and Lots of Cameras’, The New York Times (8 June 2018). 10.


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Pax Technica: How the Internet of Things May Set Us Free or Lock Us Up by Philip N. Howard

Aaron Swartz, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, blood diamond, Bretton Woods, Brian Krebs, British Empire, butter production in bangladesh, call centre, Chelsea Manning, citizen journalism, Citizen Lab, clean water, cloud computing, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, digital map, Edward Snowden, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Filter Bubble, Firefox, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Google Earth, Hacker News, Howard Rheingold, income inequality, informal economy, information security, Internet of things, John Perry Barlow, Julian Assange, Kibera, Kickstarter, land reform, M-Pesa, Marshall McLuhan, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, mobile money, Mohammed Bouazizi, national security letter, Nelson Mandela, Network effects, obamacare, Occupy movement, off-the-grid, packet switching, pension reform, prediction markets, sentiment analysis, Silicon Valley, Skype, spectrum auction, statistical model, Stuxnet, Tactical Technology Collective, technological determinism, trade route, Twitter Arab Spring, undersea cable, uranium enrichment, WikiLeaks, zero day

And online search habits leading up to an election help predict which candidates will win.43 Around the world, being a modern politician means more than having a decent website. It means being able to work with the information infrastructure that young citizens are using to form their political identities. Ideologies, like governments, have lost much of their ability to exclusively and comprehensively frame events. Indeed, the claim of Francis Fukuyama’sEnd of History” argument is that there will be no more great ideologies because capitalism has triumphed over all of its rivals. While it may be true that there have been no great ideologies since the arrival of the civilian internet, it’s also true that when there are ideological battles, they happen online.

“Hooking up,” Economist, January 31, 2013, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.economist.com/news/international/21571126-new-data-flows-highlight-relative-decline-west-hooking-up. 7. Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). 8. World Affairs Council, “Press Conference” (Regent Beverly Wilshire Hotel, April 19, 1994); Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006); G. John Ikenberry, “The Myth of Post–Cold War Chaos,” Foreign Affairs 75, no. 3 (May 1996): 79–91. 9. James Ball, “Meet the Seven People Who Hold the Keys to Worldwide Internet Security,” Guardian, February 28, 2014, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/feb/28/seven-people-keys-worldwide-internet-security-web; “Internet Society,” accessed June 16, 2014, http://www.internetsociety.org/; “ICANN,” accessed June 16, 2014, https://www.icann.org/. 10.

Cisco, Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast Update, 2013–2018 (San Jose, CA: Cisco, February 2014), accessed September 30, 2014, http://cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/white_paper_c11–520862.html. 25. Larry Diamond, “Why Are There No Arab Democracies?” Journal of Democracy 21, no. 1 (2010): 93–112. 26. Howard and Hussain, Democracy’s Fourth Wave? 27. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, reissue ed. (New York: Free Press, 2006). 28. Clive Southey, “The Staples Thesis, Common Property, and Homesteading,” Canadian Journal of Economics 11, no. 3 (1978): 547–59, doi:10.2307/134323. 29. Lita Person, Mobile Wallet (NFC, Digital Wallet) Market (Applications, Mode of Payment, Stakeholders, and Geography)—Global Share, Size, Industry Analysis, Trends, Opportunities, Growth, and Forecast, 2012–2020 (Portland, OR: Allied Market Research, November 2013), accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.alliedmarketresearch.com/mobile-wallet-market; Marion Williams, “The Regulatory Tension over Mobile Money,” Australian Banking and Finance, February 17, 2014, accessed September 30, 2014, http://www.australianbankingfinance.com/banking/the-regulatory-tension-over-mobile-money/. 30.


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Trust: The Social Virtue and the Creation of Prosperity by Francis Fukuyama

Alvin Toffler, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, blue-collar work, business climate, business cycle, capital controls, classic study, collective bargaining, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, double entry bookkeeping, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, George Gilder, glass ceiling, Glass-Steagall Act, global village, Gunnar Myrdal, hiring and firing, industrial robot, Jane Jacobs, job satisfaction, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kanban, Kenneth Arrow, land reform, liberal capitalism, liberation theology, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, mittelstand, price mechanism, profit maximization, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, Ronald Coase, scientific management, Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Nature of the Firm, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, transaction costs, transfer pricing, traveling salesman, union organizing, vertical integration, W. E. B. Du Bois

Now that the question of ideology and institutions has been settled, the preservation and accumulation of social capital will occupy center stage. NOTES CHAPTER 1. ON THE HUMAN SITUATION AT THE END OF HISTORY 1See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2For an excellent discussion of the origins of civil society and its relationship to democracy, see Ernest Gellner, Conditions and Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1994). 3For a more detailed discussion of this point, see Francis Fukuyama, “The Primacy of Culture,” Journal of Democracy 6 (1995): 7-14. 4Samuel P. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?”

For a hostile Western account of the literature on Japanese uniqueness, or nihonjinron, see Peter N. Dale, The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986). CHAPTER 30. AFTER THE END OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING 1See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2In addition, virtually all of the central themes of this book concerning the importance of culture to economic behavior were anticipated in my earlier work. See Fukuyama (1992), chaps. 20, 21; and “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3-18, where I discuss the Weber hypothesis and the impact of culture. 3This point is argued in David Gellner, “Max Weber: Capitalism and the Religion of India,” Sociology 16 (1982): 526-543. 4Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), vol 1. 5This point is made in Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword, and Book: The Structure of Human History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), pp. 39-69.

THE SPIRITUALIZATION OF ECONOMIC LIFE 1The correlation between democracy and development is explored by Seymour Martin Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Review 53 (1959): 69-105. For a review of the literature on the Lipset hypothesis that largely confirms this point, see Larry Diamond, “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered,” American Behavioral Scientist 15 (March-June 1992): 450-499. 2For a summary of this argument, see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), pp. xi-xxiii. 3This is described on pp. 143-180 of Fukuyama (1992). 4Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1982), p. 50. 5Albert O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests: Political Arguments for Capitalism Before Its Triumph (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).


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Twilight of Abundance: Why the 21st Century Will Be Nasty, Brutish, and Short by David Archibald

Bakken shale, carbon tax, Climategate, Climatic Research Unit, deindustrialization, energy security, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Great Leap Forward, Herman Kahn, income per capita, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), means of production, Medieval Warm Period, mutually assured destruction, ocean acidification, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, out of africa, peak oil, price discovery process, rising living standards, sceptred isle, South China Sea, University of East Anglia, uranium enrichment, Yom Kippur War

CHAPTER SIX CHINA WANTS A WAR And there appeared another wonder in heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads. —Revelation 12:3 After the collapse of most Communist states in 1990, the world appeared to have entered a period of permanent peace. Stanford University–based political scientist Francis Fukuyama called it “the end of history,” in which democracy and free-market capitalism would become the final form of human government.1 In response to Fukuyama’s 1992 book, Harvard political scientist Samuel Huntington penned an article entitled “The Clash of Civilizations?,” which he expanded into a 1996 book entitled The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order.2 Huntington argued that now that the age of ideological conflict between Communism and capitalism had ended, civilizational conflict, the normal state of affairs in the world, would reassert itself.

Originally published as Der Untergang des Abenlandes, Munich: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagbuchhandlung, 1918. Chapter 1: The Time Is at Hand 1.Alexandra Smith, “Food, Too, Is Wasted on the Young,” Sydney Morning Herald, June 20, 2012, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/food-too-is-wasted-on-the-young-20120719-22d32.html. 2.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3.Eigil Friis-Christensen and Knud Lassen, “Length of the Solar Cycle: An Indicator of Solar Activity Closely Associated with Climate,” Science 254 (1991): 698–700. 4.David Archibald, The Past and Future of Climate (Rhaetian Management, 2010). 5.J.

Martin’s Griffin, 2013). 6.Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impacts, 2002 update of Chernobyl: Ten Years On (Nuclear Energy Agency, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2002), http://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/. Chapter 6: China Wants a War 1.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2.Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). 3.Edward Luttwark, The Rise of China vs. the Logic of Strategy (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2012). 4.Paul Monk, “A Fox’s Thoughts about China and Australia’s Security,” Quadrant, April 2013. 5.Manuel Quinones, “Alternative Fuels: Coal-to-Liquids’ Prospects Dim, but Boosters Won’t Say Die,” Greenwire, May 17, 2013, http://www.eenews.net/stories/1059981383. 6.Ronald O’Rourke, China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S.


pages: 372 words: 92,477

The Fourth Revolution: The Global Race to Reinvent the State by John Micklethwait, Adrian Wooldridge

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, banking crisis, barriers to entry, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, bike sharing, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, cashless society, central bank independence, Chelsea Manning, circulation of elites, classic study, Clayton Christensen, Corn Laws, corporate governance, credit crunch, crony capitalism, Deng Xiaoping, Detroit bankruptcy, disintermediation, Disneyland with the Death Penalty, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Etonian, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, James Carville said: "I would like to be reincarnated as the bond market. You can intimidate everybody.", junk bonds, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, Kodak vs Instagram, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, land reform, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Martin Wolf, means of production, Michael Milken, minimum wage unemployment, mittelstand, mobile money, Mont Pelerin Society, Nelson Mandela, night-watchman state, Norman Macrae, obamacare, oil shale / tar sands, old age dependency ratio, open economy, Parag Khanna, Peace of Westphalia, pension reform, pensions crisis, personalized medicine, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, popular capitalism, profit maximization, public intellectual, rent control, rent-seeking, ride hailing / ride sharing, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, school choice, school vouchers, Shenzhen special economic zone , Silicon Valley, Skype, special economic zone, TED Talk, the long tail, three-martini lunch, too big to fail, total factor productivity, vertical integration, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, working-age population, zero-sum game

., p. 113. 11. Ibid., p. 34. 12. Ibid., p. 25. 13. “New Cradles to Graves,” The Economist, September 8, 2012. 14. “Asia’s Next Revolution,” ibid. 15. “Widefare,” The Economist, July 6, 2013. 16. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, Summer 1989. 17. Joint news conference in Washington, D.C., October 29, 1997. 18. Fukuyama, “The End of History.” 19. Kurlantzik, Democracy in Retreat, p. 201. 20. Ibid., p. 7. 21. Bertelsmann Foundation, “All Over the World, the Quality of Democratic Governance Is Declining” (press release), November 29, 2009. 22.

In South Korea, for instance, about 80 percent of what you get out of the system is tied to what you put in.15 In Asia as a whole, public-health spending is still only 2.5 percent of GDP, compared with about 7 percent in the OECD group of rich nations. The second reason is the crisis of the Western model of democracy and free-market capitalism. In the 1990s Lee’s lectures on Asian values seemed somewhat eccentric, even to Asians. The Washington consensus was sweeping all before it. Francis Fukuyama talked about “the total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives to Western liberalism.”16 Rather than associating Deng Xiaoping’s China with economic greatness, Americans thought of the lone student walking toward the tanks in Tiananmen Square in 1989. Bill Clinton told China’s president, Jiang Zemin, to his face that he was “on the wrong side of ­history.”17 The Asian economic crisis in 1997 only reinforced the conceit of Western democracy, especially when the IMF had to launch a $40 billion program to help South Korea, Thailand, and Indonesia, which had all borrowed too much from foreign banks.

Between January 2009 and November 2013, when the Democrats finally changed the filibuster procedure, seventy-nine of Barack Obama’s nominees were blocked, forcing the president to appoint people while the Senate was in recess (itself something of an abuse of power).6 Obama struggled to get Republican senators to let him appoint Chuck Hagel as his defense secretary, even though Hagel was both a decorated military veteran and a former Republican senator. Even allowing for the 2013 reform, the American political system continues to give extraordinary power to individual politicians to gum up the works. It remains what Francis Fukuyama has dubbed a “vetocracy.” Mill and Tocqueville would have been nervous about fiddling with the checks and balances that were designed to protect liberty. The other two structural problems, gerrymandering and money politics, even though they find some protection in the Constitution, seem far more alien to any idea of liberty.


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The End of Power: From Boardrooms to Battlefields and Churches to States, Why Being in Charge Isn’t What It Used to Be by Moises Naim

"World Economic Forum" Davos, additive manufacturing, AOL-Time Warner, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, business cycle, business process, business process outsourcing, call centre, citizen journalism, Clayton Christensen, clean water, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, colonial rule, conceptual framework, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, deskilling, disinformation, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, don't be evil, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, income per capita, intangible asset, intermodal, invisible hand, job-hopping, Joseph Schumpeter, Julian Assange, Kickstarter, Lewis Mumford, liberation theology, Martin Wolf, mega-rich, megacity, military-industrial complex, Naomi Klein, Nate Silver, new economy, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, open borders, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, plutocrats, price mechanism, price stability, private military company, profit maximization, prosperity theology / prosperity gospel / gospel of success, radical decentralization, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, seminal paper, Silicon Valley, Skype, Steve Jobs, The Nature of the Firm, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade route, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

In 2004, Hezbollah flew a drone into Israeli air space; the Israeli military downed it, but the psychological effect of the violation, and the message it sent about Hezbollah’s capacities, endures.30 What happens when any disaffected, delusional, or deranged individual has the capacity to wreak havoc from the sky? As Stanford University’s Francis Fukuyama, who has been building his own drone to take better nature photos, has observed: “As the technology becomes cheaper and more commercially available, moreover, drones may become harder to trace; without knowing their provenance, deterrence breaks down. A world in which people can be routinely and anonymously targeted by unseen enemies is not pleasant to contemplate.”31 Drones are hyper-sophisticated compared with the most devastating weapon in military conflicts of the past few years—the improvised explosive device.

Having a more diverse and inclusive group of actors at the table (the erstwhile “weak”) and reducing the number of decisions arbitrarily imposed on the world by a few powerful players are worth applauding, but the heightened difficulty of getting things done is not. POLITICAL PARALYSIS AS COLLATERAL DAMAGE OF THE DECAY OF POWER That paralysis has become acutely evident in the United States. As politics has become more polarized, the defects of a system overloaded with checks and balances have become more apparent. Francis Fukuyama calls this system a “vetocracy.” He writes: “Americans take great pride in a constitution that limits executive power through a series of checks and balances. But those checks have metastasized. And now America is a vetocracy. When this system is combined with ideologized parties, . . . the result is paralysis. . . .

Not just in the corridors of presidential palaces, corporate headquarters, and university boardrooms but even more so in encounters around watercoolers in offices, in casual conversations among friends, and at the dinner table at home. These conversations are the indispensable ingredients of a political climate that is less welcoming to the terrible simplifiers. For as Francis Fukuyama correctly argues, to eradicate the vetocracy that is paralyzing the system, “political reform must first and foremost be driven by popular, grassroots mobilization.”5 This, in turn, requires focusing the conversation on how to contain the negative aspects of the decay of power and move us to the positive sloping side of the inverted U-curve.


pages: 245 words: 72,893

How Democracy Ends by David Runciman

barriers to entry, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bitcoin, blockchain, Brexit referendum, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, disinformation, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, Edward Snowden, fake news, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Internet of things, Jeremy Corbyn, Jon Ronson, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, Large Hadron Collider, loss aversion, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, mutually assured destruction, Network effects, Nick Bostrom, Norman Mailer, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Paris climate accords, Peter Thiel, post-truth, power law, precautionary principle, quantitative easing, Russell Brand, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, the long tail, The Wisdom of Crowds, Travis Kalanick, universal basic income, Yogi Berra

4Something better? CONCLUSION This is how democracy ends EPILOGUE 20 January 2053 FURTHER READING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NOTES INDEX PREFACE Thinking the unthinkable NOTHING LASTS FOREVER. At some point democracy was always going to pass into the pages of history. No one, not even Francis Fukuyama – who announced the end of history back in 1989 – has believed that its virtues make it immortal.1 But until very recently, most citizens of Western democracies would have imagined that the end was a long way off. They would not have expected it to happen in their lifetimes. Very few would have thought it might be taking place before their eyes.

When another democracy starts to fall apart, we want to know if it’s a warning of our own possible fate. Democratic politics is hungry for morality tales, so long as it is someone else who is living them. In the late 1980s many Western commentators viewed Japan as the coming power: the twenty-first century would be the Japanese century. Francis Fukuyama cited Japan (along with the EU) as the likeliest illustration of what we could expect from the end of history: the triumph of democracy would turn out to be stable, prosperous, efficient and just a little bit boring. Then the Japanese bubble burst – along with the Japanese stock market – and the future belonged to someone else. Japan became instead a fable about the dangers of hubris.

They identify trustworthy institutions as the key to political stability. This is a more accessible version of their classic earlier book, The Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). The initial book has some equations in it; the later one doesn’t. Francis Fukuyama, still best known for The End of History and the Last Man (New York and London: Free Press, 1992), gives his own account of the rise and possible fall of democracy in The Origins of Political Order (New York: Farrer, Straus & Giroux; London: Profile, 2012) and Political Order and Political Decay (New York: Farrer, Straus & Giroux, 2014; London: Profile, 2015).


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Broke: How to Survive the Middle Class Crisis by David Boyle

anti-communist, AOL-Time Warner, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bonfire of the Vanities, bonus culture, call centre, collateralized debt obligation, corporate raider, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, deindustrialization, delayed gratification, Desert Island Discs, Eugene Fama: efficient market hypothesis, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial independence, financial innovation, financial intermediation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, gentrification, Goodhart's law, housing crisis, income inequality, Jane Jacobs, job satisfaction, John Bogle, junk bonds, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, Mary Meeker, mega-rich, Money creation, mortgage debt, Neil Kinnock, Nelson Mandela, new economy, Nick Leeson, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, Ocado, Occupy movement, off grid, offshore financial centre, pension reform, pensions crisis, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, Ponzi scheme, positional goods, precariat, quantitative easing, school choice, scientific management, Slavoj Žižek, social intelligence, subprime mortgage crisis, too big to fail, trickle-down economics, Vanguard fund, Walter Mischel, wealth creators, Winter of Discontent, work culture , working poor

It isn’t sudden middle-class impoverishment by unemployment that is really the most important story — though it happens in economic downturns of course — it is the slow impoverishment of middle-class professionals, the constriction of their room for manoeuvre, their status and then their salary too. The political thinker Francis Fukuyama caused a storm of intellectual excitement after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 by proclaiming ‘the End of History’. He became, rather reluctantly, part of the intellectual underpinnings of a new kind of deregulated ideal, the one that fell to pieces in the banking crash of 2008. These days, he finds himself in rather different company, and has recently begun a defence of the embattled American middle classes.[23] What he described as ‘happy talk about the wonders of the knowledge economy’, hailing a new economy based exclusively on service and finance, was actually a ‘gauzy veil placed over the hard facts of deindustrialization’.

There certainly is a middle-class problem in the USA, where 4 million families are believed to be in danger of sliding into poverty and one in four middle-class households are about to drop down onto the lower rung, spending a quarter of their incomes just servicing debt.[22] It is different over there, but there are important parallels between the UK and USA, which is why the Labour leader Ed Miliband borrowed the American phrase ‘squeezed middle’ in 2011. The parallel has also been noticed by one of the most important commentators on world affairs. Francis Fukuyama is busily charting the decline of the middle classes in all developed nations. Into the misty past, the middle classes have benefited from rising above the undifferentiated masses, Fukuyama implies. Now they are being driven back into the undifferentiated mass by a new global elite which is benefiting from the shifts in the financial world over the past generation.

This period has also coincided with an extraordinary and deeply unpleasant vilification of the working classes, tracked so compellingly by Owen Jones in his polemic Chavs, where mainstream culture and politics alike seem to have become suffused with an unpleasant contempt for anyone who wasn’t middle-class, as if the threat to middle-class values came from below and not from above. Websites like Chavscum were reported in the Daily Telegraph under the headline ‘In defence of snobbery’.[10] As Francis Fukuyama suggested (see previous chapter), the political risks from destroying the middle classes are terrifying. This ‘chavscum’ attitude has fed into the extremes of panic for many middle-class parents desperate to choose the right school for their children, and fearing that a feckless, alien culture would somehow steal their security and poison the minds of their families.


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The Corona Crash: How the Pandemic Will Change Capitalism by Grace Blakeley

Anthropocene, asset-backed security, basic income, Big Tech, bond market vigilante , Bretton Woods, business cycle, capital controls, carbon tax, central bank independence, coronavirus, corporate governance, COVID-19, creative destruction, credit crunch, crony capitalism, debt deflation, decarbonisation, degrowth, deindustrialization, don't be evil, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gig economy, global pandemic, global value chain, green new deal, Greenspan put, income inequality, informal economy, inverted yield curve, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, lockdown, low interest rates, Martin Wolf, Modern Monetary Theory, moral hazard, move fast and break things, Network effects, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, pensions crisis, Philip Mirowski, post-war consensus, price mechanism, quantitative easing, regulatory arbitrage, rent control, reshoring, Rishi Sunak, savings glut, secular stagnation, shareholder value, social distancing, structural adjustment programs, too big to fail, universal basic income, unorthodox policies, Washington Consensus, yield curve

, Guardian, 21 April 2020; Jonathan Tepper, ‘Federal Reserve Has Encouraged Moral Hazard on a Grand Scale’, Financial Times, 13 April 2020. 21 Robert Brenner, ‘Escalating Plunder’, New Left Review 123, May-June 2020, pp. 6-9. 22 Geoff Mann, In the Long Run We Are All Dead: Keynesianism, Political Economy, and Revolution London: Verso, 2017. 23 Ellen Meiksins Wood, Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism, London: Verso, 2016. 24 Gillian Tett, ‘Why the US Federal Reserve Turned Again to Blackrock for Help’, Financial Times, 26 March 2020; Michael Bird, ‘European Central Bank Hires Blackrock to Help with Loan Purchase Programme’, City A.M., 27 August 2014, cityam.com. 3 The New Imperialism 1 Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18, and The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992; Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 2005. 2 Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Vol. 1, trans. by Ben Fowkes, London: Penguin, 1990, p. 450. 3 There is a long-standing debate in Marxist literature about the class position of the manager: see Nicos Poulantzas, Classes in Contemporary Capitalism, London: Verso, 1975; John Ehrenreich and Barbara Ehrenreich, ‘The Professional-Managerial Class’, in Between Labour and Capital, ed.

By the end of this crisis, a tiny oligarchy of politicians, central bankers, financiers and corporate executives will have further monopolised wealth and power in the global economy. The challenge for the Left will be to hold them to account. 3 The New Imperialism At the end of the 1980s, as the Iron Curtain fell and free market capitalism spread to most parts of the world, Francis Fukuyama declared the end of history. The evangelists of capital promised an era of opportunity and prosperity, including for poorer nations.1 The 2008 financial crisis shattered this illusion and brought history back with a bang. Resistance to globalisation, once confined to protest movements in the Global South and anarchists in the Global North, began to mount in the very states most integrated into the global economy.


The Ecotechnic Future: Envisioning a Post-Peak World by John Michael Greer

back-to-the-land, Black Swan, clean water, Community Supported Agriculture, David Strachan, deindustrialization, Easter island, European colonialism, Extropian, failed state, feminist movement, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, hydrogen economy, hygiene hypothesis, illegal immigration, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of agriculture, Jevons paradox, Lewis Mumford, mass immigration, McMansion, oil shale / tar sands, peak oil, post-industrial society, Project for a New American Century, Ray Kurzweil, Stewart Brand, the scientific method, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, upwardly mobile, Whole Earth Catalog, Y2K

It’s ironic that one of the best places to begin that discussion is to glance at a recent announcement — ​one of many down through the years — ​that history itself had come to an end. P A R T III P ossi b i l ities The Ecotechnic Promise I 13 n retrospect, 1989 may not have been a good year to announce that history was over. That spring, however, a US State Department official named Francis Fukuyama did just that in an article titled “The End of History?” Later expanded into book form, ­Fukuyama’s claim got the fifteen minutes of fame Andy Warhol claimed everyone would receive in the future and sparked enough controversy in academic circles to justify a small bookshelf of discussions and rebuttals.1 Fukuyama’s announcement is easy to misunderstand and even easier to satirize.

Political radicals at both ends of the spectrum pounced on Hegel’s ideas before the ink was dry on the first edition of his Philosophy of History. Karl Marx used Hegelian ideas as the foundation for his philosophy of class warfare and Communist revolution, while Giovanni Gentile, the pet philosopher of Mussolini’s Fascist regime in Italy, was also a strict Hegelian. For that matter, Francis Fukuyama, who played Gentile’s role for the neoconservative movement, drew his theory of an end to history straight from Hegel. Still, the spread of Hegel’s ideas isn’t limited to the radical fringes, or even to those who know who Hegel was. When peak oil comes up for discussion outside the activist community, one of the most 229 230 T he E cotechnic F u t u re common responses is,“Oh, they’ll think of something.”

See Roger Penrose, The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, 1989, for a thoughtful discussion. 9. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, 1962. 10. McClenon, Deviant Science. Chapter Thirteen: The Ecotechnic Promise 1. See, for example, Timothy Burns, ed., After History? Francis Fukuyama and his Critics, Rowman and Littlefield, 1994. 2. “We are history’s actors ...when we act, we create our own reality.” This embarrassing display of hubris by a Bush administration staffer is quoted in Ron Suskind, “Faith, certainty, and the presidency of George W. Bush,” New York Times Magazine (17 October 2004). 3.


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This America: The Case for the Nation by Jill Lepore

Charles Lindbergh, colonial rule, desegregation, Donald Trump, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, immigration reform, liberal world order, mass immigration, Steve Bannon

By the last quarter of the twentieth century nationalism was, outside of postcolonial states, nearly dead, a stumbling, ghastly wraith. And many intellectuals believed that if they stopped writing national history, nationalism would die sooner, starved, neglected, deserted, a fitting death for a war criminal, destroyer of worlds. Francis Fukuyama’s much-read 1989 essay “The End of History?” appeared three years after Degler delivered his speech, but it remains the best-known illustration of the wisdom of Degler’s warning. At the end of the Cold War, Fukuyama announced that fascism and communism were dead and that nationalism, seemingly all but the last threat to liberalism left standing, was utterly decrepit in Europe (“European nationalism has been defanged”) and that, where it was still kicking in other parts of the world, well, that wasn’t quite nationalism: it was a halting striving for democracy.

In 1986, when Degler rose from his chair to deliver his presidential address before the American Historical Association, hardly anyone in the academy was writing national history anymore, or making the case for the nation. Degler didn’t have much patience with this. Nor, I suspect, did he have much patience with Francis Fukuyama’s 1989 “The End of History?” Later, after the onset of civil war in Bosnia, the political theorist Michael Walzer grimly announced, “The tribes have returned.” They had never left. They’d only become harder for historians to see, because they weren’t really looking anymore. · XV · THE RETURN OF NATIONALISM To say that events did not bear out foretellings of the death of nationalism is to mute the screams of millions.

Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008. DuBois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in America. New York: Free Press, 1935. Epps, Garrett. Democracy Reborn: The Fourteenth Amendment and the Fight for Equal Rights in Post–Civil War America. New York: Henry Holt, 2006. Fukuyama, Francis. “The End of History?” The National Interest, Summer 1989. ______ . Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2018. Gates, Henry, Jr. Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow. New York: Penguin, 2019. Gellner, Ernest. Nations and Nationalism. 2nd ed.


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Shadows of Empire: The Anglosphere in British Politics by Michael Kenny, Nick Pearce

battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, British Empire, colonial rule, corporate governance, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, global reserve currency, imperial preference, informal economy, invention of the telegraph, Khartoum Gordon, labour mobility, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, Monroe Doctrine, Neal Stephenson, Nixon shock, public intellectual, quantitative easing, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, Steve Bannon, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, trade route, Washington Consensus

This sustained a ‘distinctive architecture of policy collaboration between these countries’, consisting of transgovernmental elite policy networks addressing common problems and devising shared solutions. Its depth and range suggests a ‘structural multilateral relationship in the Anglosphere, rather than simply bilateral or ad hoc arrangements.’8 From the ‘End of History’ to Iraq In the immediate years after the collapse of Soviet communism, when Francis Fukuyama's contention that liberal-democratic capitalism represented the ‘end of history’, the global dominance of this Anglo-American, liberal economic and political order appeared assured. A long boom, fuelled by global financialisation, was under way. China and India were becoming integrated into the global economy.

Castles, ‘Australian antecedents of the Third Way’, Political Studies, 50 (2002), pp. 683–702. 7  Commission on Social Justice/Institute for Public Policy Research, Social Justice: Strategies for National Renewal (London: Vintage, 1994). 8  Tim Legrand, ‘Elite, exclusive and elusive: transgovernmental policy networks and iterative policy transfer in the Anglosphere’, Policy Studies, 37/5 (2016), pp. 440–55. 9  Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992), p. xxiii. 10  Samuel P. Huntington, ‘The West: unique, not universal’, Foreign Affairs, 75 (1996), pp. 28–46. 11  Rick Fawn, ‘Canada: outside the Anglo-American fold’, in Rick Fawn and Raymond Hinnebusch (eds), The Iraq War: Causes and Consequences (London: Lynne Rienner, 2006). 12  Walter Russell Mead, God and Gold: Britain, America, and the Making of the Modern World (New York: Vintage, 2007). 13  Ibid., p. 314. 14  Ibid., p. 95. 15  Perry Anderson, ‘American foreign policy and its thinkers’, New Left Review, no. 83 (2013) p. 122 [special issue]. 16  The UKIP Manifesto 2015, www.ukip.org/manifesto2015. 17  William Hague, ‘Britain and Australia: making the most of global opportunity’, John Howard Lecture, 17 January 2013, www.menziesrc.org/images/Latest_News/PDF/Britain_and_Australia__making_the_most_of_global_opportunity1.pdf. 18  Boris Johnson, ‘The Aussies are just like us, so let's stop kicking them out’, The Telegraph, 25 August 2013, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/10265619/The-Aussies-are-just-like-us-so-lets-stop-kicking-them-out.html. 19  Boris Johnson, Speech at Bloomberg in response to the receipt of Dr Gerard Lyons's publication of ‘The Europe report: a win–win situation’, 6 August 2014, www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/gla_migrate_files_destination/bj-europe-speech.pdf. 20  Tony Abbott, Address to Queen's College, Oxford University, 14 December 2012, www.australiantimes.co.uk/tony-abbott-address-to-queens-college-oxford-university/. 21  See, for example, Owen Paterson, ‘The Anglosphere, trade and international security’, speech to the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom, the Heritage Foundation, Washington, DC, 25 March 2015, www.uk2020.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/The-Anglosphere-Trade-and-International-Security-UK-2020-25.03.2015-FINAL.pdf. 22  Shashi Parulekar and Joel Kotkin, ‘The state of the Anglosphere’, City Journal (winter 2012), www.city-journal.org/html/state-anglosphere-13447.html. 23  Daniel Hannan, Why America Must Not Follow Europe (New York: Encounter Books, 2011). 7 Brexit: The Anglosphere Triumphant?

The full story of the emergence of this New Right Anglosphere is yet to be told, primarily because the identity of its main donors and the nature of the relationships between its key figures remain rather opaque.29 Two conferences, organised by the Hudson Institute in 1999 and 2000 in Washington, DC, and Berkshire, brought together what one journalistic observer called ‘the intellectual heart of British-American conservatism’.30 Among the delegates were Thatcher and David Davis MP (later the government minister tasked with negotiating the UK's departure from the EU), leading intellectual conservatives, including Francis Fukuyama, Robert Conquest and Kenneth Minogue, prominent commentators such as James C. Bennett, John O'Sullivan and Owen Harries, the media mogul Conrad Black, and John Hulsman from the Heritage Foundation. Very few American politicians identified with this cause in these years, with the notable exception of the leading Republican Pat Buchanan.


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The Future of War by Lawrence Freedman

Albert Einstein, autonomous vehicles, Berlin Wall, Black Swan, Boeing 747, British Empire, colonial rule, conceptual framework, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, driverless car, drone strike, en.wikipedia.org, energy security, Ernest Rutherford, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Google Glasses, Herman Kahn, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), John Markoff, long peace, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, New Journalism, Norbert Wiener, nuclear taboo, open economy, pattern recognition, Peace of Westphalia, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, speech recognition, Steven Pinker, Strategic Defense Initiative, Stuxnet, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, systematic bias, the scientific method, uranium enrichment, urban sprawl, Valery Gerasimov, Wargames Reagan, WarGames: Global Thermonuclear War, WikiLeaks, zero day

Available: http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21693279-how-many-people-has-syrias-civil-war-killed-quantifying-carnage CHAPTER 12 1. Immanuel Kant, Political Writings, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), 100. 2. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History’, The National Interest (1989). The original essay was developed into a book: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3. Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991). A key factor according to Huntington was not only the active promotion of democracy by the US and the snowball effect within regions but also the growing opposition of the Catholic Church to authoritarian rule. 4.

But the spread of democracy was bound to be contentious and would be resisted by autocrats. As European communism imploded Francis Fukuyama of the RAND Corporation announced that this was not just ‘the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history’, but ‘the end of history as such’. By this he meant ‘the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’2 Talking of the ‘end of history’ invited misinterpretation. He was not suggesting that there would be no more conflict, or other transformational events, only that there was now no serious ideological alternative to the political and economic model that had been embraced by the Western world, to their enormous benefit.

[ 23 ] Mega-Cities and Climate Change In our world there are still people who run around risking their lives in bloody battles over a name or a flag or a piece of clothing but they tend to belong to gangs with names like the Bloods and the Crips and they make their living dealing drugs. FRANCIS FUKUYAMA, The End of History, 19921 As Fukuyama looked with optimism at the West’s liberal triumph in the early 1990s, there was also anxiety about whether a lack of anything serious to fight about would lead it into a soft decadence. The Bloods and the Crips were two famous Los Angeles street gangs. The Bloods were formed at first to resist the influence of the Crips in their neighbourhoods.


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The Dying Citizen: How Progressive Elites, Tribalism, and Globalization Are Destroying the Idea of America by Victor Davis Hanson

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 2021 United States Capitol attack, 23andMe, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, airport security, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, Boeing 737 MAX, borderless world, bread and circuses, British Empire, business climate, business cycle, carbon footprint, centre right, clean water, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, currency manipulation / currency intervention, defund the police, deindustrialization, deplatforming, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, drone strike, El Camino Real, fake news, Ferguson, Missouri, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, George Floyd, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, Herbert Marcuse, high-speed rail, Honoré de Balzac, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, Jeff Bezos, Joseph Schumpeter, laissez-faire capitalism, lockdown, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, microaggression, military-industrial complex, mortgage debt, Nate Silver, new economy, New Urbanism, obamacare, old-boy network, Paris climate accords, Parler "social media", peak oil, Potemkin village, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, school choice, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Skype, social distancing, Social Justice Warrior, tech worker, Thomas L Friedman, transcontinental railway, upwardly mobile, vertical integration, WikiLeaks, working poor, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

“It’s a black thing”: “Mistaken for a Black Thing, Few Strive to Understand It,” Seattle Times, July 4, 2007, www.seattletimes.com/opinion/mistaken-for-a-black-thing-few-strive-to-understand-it; Klan: Sarah Churchwell, “America’s Original Identity Politics,” New York Review of Books, February 7, 2019, www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/02/07/americas-original-identity-politics; Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, “Francis Fukuyama—Against Identity Politics,” University of Pennsylvania, www.sas.upenn.edu/andrea-mitchell-center/francis-fukuyama-against-identity-politics. 24. On later embarrassments of Chicano racialist movements: Tim Rutten, “An Identity Issue for Bustamente,” Los Angeles Times, September 6, 2003, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-06-et-rutten6-story.html; Matea Gold, “Chicano Student Group Defended,” Los Angeles Times, August 30, 2003, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-aug-30-me-mecha30-story.html.

The civil rights movement finally killed off the dangerous vestiges of the Ku Klux Klan. Yet the latter’s few incoherent remnants are starting to recombobulate in the era of diversity to supposedly preserve their “white” identity by professing a right to emulate the tribal chauvinism of other racial groups. In a series of essays and books, Francis Fukuyama has warned of such unintended consequences of identity politics when all are redefining themselves according to appearance: Perhaps the worst thing about identity politics as currently practiced by the left is that it has stimulated the rise of identity politics on the right. This is due in no small part to the left’s embrace of political correctness, a social norm that prohibits people from publicly expressing their beliefs or opinions without fearing moral opprobrium.

Vaquera, “The Immigration Enforcement Regime, and the Implications for Racial Inequality in the Lives of Undocumented Young Adults,” Sociology of Race and Ethnicity 1 (2015): 88–104. 23. A discussion of why Latin America did not “catch up” economically with Canada and the United States is found in Francis Fukuyama, ed., Falling Behind: Explaining the Development Gap Between Latin America and the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 72–98. For Mexico’s use of its expatriate community to interfere in the domestic politics of the United States, see Mark Krikorian, The New Case Against Immigration: Both Legal and Illegal (New York: Sentinel, 2008), 71–85. 24.


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The End of the Free Market: Who Wins the War Between States and Corporations? by Ian Bremmer

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Asian financial crisis, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, BRICs, British Empire, centre right, collective bargaining, corporate governance, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, diversified portfolio, Doha Development Round, Exxon Valdez, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Glass-Steagall Act, global reserve currency, global supply chain, household responsibility system, invisible hand, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, laissez-faire capitalism, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, new economy, offshore financial centre, open economy, race to the bottom, reserve currency, risk tolerance, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , South Sea Bubble, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, spice trade, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, tulip mania, uranium enrichment, Washington Consensus, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

Chapter six details what those who believe in free-market capitalism can do about it. CHAPTER ONE The Rise of a New System What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. —FRANCIS FUKUYAMA , “The End of History”1 In championing globalization as the defining force in international politics and the global economy, we’ve spent the past several years writing obituaries for communism, for dictatorship, and even for the nation-state.

Finally, much love to Ann Shuman, who generally puts up with my insufferable nature. And to my favorite brother, Robert Coolbrith. They’re both brilliant, adorable, and would be in more paragraphs if good taste didn’t dictate otherwise. NOTES CHAPTER ONE : The Rise of a New System 1 Francis Fukuyama’s essay “The End of History” appeared in the National Interest, Summer 1989, and was expanded into the book The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2 According to the Economist Intelligence Unit’s 2008 Democracy Index, “Democracy can be seen as a set of practices and principles that institutionalize and thus ultimately protect freedom.

If the turmoil that these crises generated couldn’t breathe life into the communist corpse, it’s hard to imagine what could. Communism is dead, and there will be no resurrection. Yet no one can credibly say the same for dictatorship. In 1989, as Eastern Europe’s communist states fell like dominoes and millions of Chinese students mounted a bold challenge to their government, writer Francis Fukuyama penned a provocative essay to support a surprising claim: that “history” had come to an end. He argued that though forms of government would continue to vary from place to place and that some countries had considerable catching up to do, mankind was moving toward consensus on the virtues of liberal democracy.


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Utopia for Realists: The Case for a Universal Basic Income, Open Borders, and a 15-Hour Workweek by Rutger Bregman

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, autonomous vehicles, banking crisis, Bartolomé de las Casas, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bertrand Russell: In Praise of Idleness, Branko Milanovic, cognitive dissonance, computer age, conceptual framework, credit crunch, David Graeber, Diane Coyle, driverless car, Erik Brynjolfsson, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Levy and Richard Murnane: The New Division of Labor, full employment, George Gilder, George Santayana, happiness index / gross national happiness, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, income inequality, invention of gunpowder, James Watt: steam engine, John Markoff, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Kodak vs Instagram, low skilled workers, means of production, megacity, meta-analysis, microcredit, minimum wage unemployment, Mont Pelerin Society, Nathan Meyer Rothschild: antibiotics, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, Paul Samuelson, Peter Thiel, post-industrial society, precariat, public intellectual, radical decentralization, RAND corporation, randomized controlled trial, Ray Kurzweil, Ronald Reagan, Rutger Bregman, Second Machine Age, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Skype, stem cell, Steven Pinker, TED Talk, telemarketer, The future is already here, The Future of Employment, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, wage slave, War on Poverty, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, wikimedia commons, women in the workforce, working poor, World Values Survey

Orazem, “Challenge Paper: Education,” Copenhagen Consensus Center (April 2014). http://copenhagenconsensus.com/publication/education 17. “Where have all the burglars gone?” The Economist (July 18, 2013). http://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21582041-rich-world-seeing-less-and-less-crime-even-face-high-unemployment-and-economic 18. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (Summer 1989). http://ps321.community.uaf.edu/files/2012/10/Fukuyama-End-of-history-article.pdf 19. Andrew Cohut et al., Economies of Emerging Markets Better Rated During Difficult Times. Global Downturn Takes Heavy Toll; Inequality Seen as Rising, Pew Research (May 23, 2013), p. 23. http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2013/05/Pew-Global-Attitudes-Economic-Report-FINAL-May-23-20131.pdf 20.

Hayek, “The Intellectuals and Socialism,” The University of Chicago Law Review (Spring 1949). https://mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf 16. Quoted in: Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion. Reinventing Free Markets since the Depression (2012). p. 13. 17. Quoted in: Burgin, The Great Persuasion, p. 169. 18. Ibid, p. 11. 19. Ibid, p. 221. 20. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (1992). 21. At the end of his life, Friedman said there was only one philosopher he had ever really studied in depth: the Austrian Karl Popper. Popper argued that good science revolves around “falsifiability,” requiring a continual search for things that don’t fit your theory instead of only seeking confirmation.

“There are still criminals, but there are ever fewer of them and they are getting older.”17 War has been on the decline Source: Peace Research Institute Oslo A Bleak Paradise Welcome, in other words, to the Land of Plenty. To the good life. To Cockaigne, where almost everyone is rich, safe, and healthy. Where there’s only one thing we lack: a reason to get out of bed in the morning. Because after all, you can’t really improve on paradise. Back in 1989, the American philosopher Francis Fukuyama already noted that we had arrived in an era where life has been reduced to “economic calculation, the endless solving of technical problems, environmental concerns, and the satisfaction of sophisticated consumer demands.”18 Notching up our purchasing power another percentage point, or shaving a couple off our carbon emissions; perhaps a new gadget – that’s about the extent of our vision.


Social Capital and Civil Society by Francis Fukuyama

Berlin Wall, blue-collar work, Fairchild Semiconductor, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, German hyperinflation, Jane Jacobs, Joseph Schumpeter, Kevin Kelly, labor-force participation, low skilled workers, p-value, Pareto efficiency, postindustrial economy, principal–agent problem, RAND corporation, scientific management, Silicon Valley, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the strength of weak ties, transaction costs, vertical integration, World Values Survey

Social Capital FRANCIS FUKUYAMA THE TANNER LECTURES ON HUMAN VALUES Delivered at Brasenose College, Oxford May 12, 14, and 15, 1997 FRANCIS FUKUYAMA is Omer L. and Nancy Hirst Professor of Public Policy at the Institute of Public Policy at George Mason University and director of the Institute’s International Transactions Program. Educated at Cornell, he received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. He has been a member of the Political Science Department of the RAND Corporation, where he is currently a consultant, as well as a member of the Policy Planning Staff of the U.S. Department of State.

He is a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies and the Council on Foreign Relations; the editor, with Andrez Korbonski, of T h e Soviet Union and the Third W o r l d : T h e Last Three Decades (1987) ; and book review editor at Foreign A f a i r s . His publications include T h e End of History and the Last M a n ( 1 9 9 2 ), which received the Premio Capri and the Book Critics Award (from the Los Angeles T i m e s ) , and Trust : T h e Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (1995), which was named “business book of the year” by European. LECTURE I. THE GREAT DISRUPTION Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, there has been an extraordinary amount of attention paid to the interrelated issues of social capital, civil society, trust, and social norms as central issues for contemporary democracies.


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Fully Automated Luxury Communism by Aaron Bastani

"Peter Beck" AND "Rocket Lab", Alan Greenspan, Anthropocene, autonomous vehicles, banking crisis, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boston Dynamics, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, capital controls, capitalist realism, cashless society, central bank independence, collapse of Lehman Brothers, computer age, computer vision, CRISPR, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, decarbonisation, deep learning, dematerialisation, DIY culture, Donald Trump, double helix, driverless car, electricity market, Elon Musk, energy transition, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Future Shock, G4S, general purpose technology, Geoffrey Hinton, Gregor Mendel, housing crisis, income inequality, industrial robot, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, Isaac Newton, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Jevons paradox, job automation, John Markoff, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, Kevin Kelly, Kuiper Belt, land reform, Leo Hollis, liberal capitalism, low earth orbit, low interest rates, low skilled workers, M-Pesa, market fundamentalism, means of production, mobile money, more computing power than Apollo, new economy, off grid, pattern recognition, Peter H. Diamandis: Planetary Resources, post scarcity, post-work, price mechanism, price stability, private spaceflight, Productivity paradox, profit motive, race to the bottom, rewilding, RFID, rising living standards, Robert Solow, scientific management, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sensor fusion, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Slavoj Žižek, SoftBank, stem cell, Stewart Brand, synthetic biology, technological determinism, technoutopianism, the built environment, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, transatlantic slave trade, Travis Kalanick, universal basic income, V2 rocket, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, We are as Gods, Whole Earth Catalog, working-age population

Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises In the summer of 1989, as it became clear the United States and its allies had won the Cold War, Francis Fukuyama wrote an essay titled ‘The End of History?’ for the National Interest. Its core proposition was provocative yet simple, with the little-known academic asserting that the collapse of the Soviet Union was of greater importance than simply marking the end of a military rivalry: ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’

‘Wisconsin Board Clears Way For $3 Billion Foxconn Deal’. Reuters, 8 November 2017. Part I. Chaos under Heaven 1. The Great Divide Fukuyama, Francis. ‘The End of History’. National Interest, 16 Summer 1989. Capitalist Realism Cox, Christoph, Molly Whalen and Alain Badiou. ‘On Evil: An Interview with Alain Badiou’. Cabinet, Winter 2001-2. Fisher, Mark. Capitalist Realism: Is There No Alternative? Zero Books, 2010. Menand, Louis. ‘Francis Fukuyama Postpones the End of History’. New Yorker, 3 September 2018. Crisis Unleashed ‘Depression Looms as Global Crisis’. BBC News, 2 September 2009. Hertle, Hans-Hermann and Maria Nooke.

The claim that capitalism will end, is, for capitalist realism, like saying a triangle doesn’t have three sides or that the law of gravity no longer applies while an apple falls from a tree. Rather than understanding the present as one historical period among many, like Victorian England or the Roman Republic, to be alive at the end of history means presuming our social systems to be as unchanging as the physical laws that govern the universe. And yet the truth is capitalist realism is already coming apart. The fact you are reading these words at all is proof. Despite the observations of Francis Fukuyama and his disciples, history returned on 15 September 2008 when the global financial system crashed. Within weeks the world’s leading economic powers, previous zealots for minimal state interference, were left with no alternative but to bail out their domestic banks, with some even being nationalised.


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Framers: Human Advantage in an Age of Technology and Turmoil by Kenneth Cukier, Viktor Mayer-Schönberger, Francis de Véricourt

Albert Einstein, Andrew Wiles, Apollo 11, autonomous vehicles, Ben Bernanke: helicopter money, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, Blue Ocean Strategy, circular economy, Claude Shannon: information theory, cognitive dissonance, cognitive load, contact tracing, coronavirus, correlation does not imply causation, COVID-19, credit crunch, CRISPR, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, deep learning, DeepMind, defund the police, Demis Hassabis, discovery of DNA, Donald Trump, double helix, Douglas Hofstadter, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, fake news, fiat currency, framing effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, game design, George Floyd, George Gilder, global pandemic, global village, Gödel, Escher, Bach, Higgs boson, Ignaz Semmelweis: hand washing, informal economy, Isaac Newton, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, job-hopping, knowledge economy, Large Hadron Collider, lockdown, Louis Pasteur, Mark Zuckerberg, Mercator projection, meta-analysis, microaggression, Mustafa Suleyman, Neil Armstrong, nudge unit, OpenAI, packet switching, pattern recognition, Peter Thiel, public intellectual, quantitative easing, Ray Kurzweil, Richard Florida, Schrödinger's Cat, scientific management, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, TED Talk, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen

Whether it is a high-tech arms race or a hotter climate or a growing underclass around the world, we need to get better at framing to respond. Bookshelves sag with tomes extolling the virtues of human progress. But the affluent, immortal brainiac who is predicted in the book Homo Deus by Yuval Noah Harari will in time be as ridiculed as the rich, safe, and happy “last man” in Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History. A more clear-eyed and responsible look at the world suggests that things aren’t getting easier but harder. The toughest challenges facing humanity are not behind us but ahead of us. In the past most of our challenges were a matter of survival for individuals or communities, but not the entire planet.

The end of the Cold War and the fall of communism in the early 1990s only deepened the conviction among many in the West that not only Western values but also Western frames, their very mental models of the world, were superior to others. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously gave voice to this belief in 1992, that human civilization had reached the “end of history” because the idea of liberal, market democracy—the dominant frame left standing after the Soviet Union collapsed—seemed to mark an end point in political thinking. The “liberal market democracy” frame, exemplified by the United States, faced no credible or coherent alternative for how to govern.

Our World in Data: Information about the project and its financial supporters is at “Our Supporters,” Our World in Data, accessed November 2, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/funding. On Harari: Yuval N. Harari, Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (London: Harvill Secker, 2016). On Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2. framing Story of Alyssa Milano and the origin of MeToo: The information was compiled from an interview with Alyssa Milano by Kenneth Cukier in August 2020, as well as from the articles that follow: Useful references include: Jessica Bennett, “Alyssa Milano, Celebrity Activist for the Celebrity Presidential Age,” New York Times, October 25, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/25/us/politics/alyssa-milano-activism.html; Anna Codrea-Rado, “#MeToo Floods Social Media with Stories of Harassment and Assault,” New York Times, October 16, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/16/technology/metoo-twitter-facebook.html; Jim Rutenberg et al., “Harvey Weinstein’s Fall Opens the Floodgates in Hollywood,” New York Times, October 16, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/16/business/media/harvey-weinsteins-fall-opens-the-floodgates-in-hollywood.html.


pages: 497 words: 123,778

The People vs. Democracy: Why Our Freedom Is in Danger and How to Save It by Yascha Mounk

Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, An Inconvenient Truth, Andrew Keen, basic income, battle of ideas, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, business cycle, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carried interest, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, centre right, classic study, clean water, cognitive bias, conceptual framework, critical race theory, David Brooks, deindustrialization, demographic transition, desegregation, disinformation, Donald Trump, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, German hyperinflation, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Herbert Marcuse, Home mortgage interest deduction, housing crisis, income inequality, invention of the printing press, invention of the steam engine, investor state dispute settlement, Jeremy Corbyn, job automation, Joseph Schumpeter, land value tax, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, microaggression, mortgage tax deduction, Naomi Klein, new economy, offshore financial centre, open borders, Parag Khanna, plutocrats, post-materialism, price stability, ride hailing / ride sharing, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Rutger Bregman, secular stagnation, sharing economy, Steve Bannon, Thomas L Friedman, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, upwardly mobile, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Margaret Talev and Sahil Kapur, “Trump Vows Election-Day Suspense without Seeking Voters He Needs to Win,” Bloomberg, 20 October, 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-20/trump-vows-election-day-suspense-without-seeking-voters-he-needs-to-win; Associated Press, “Trump to Clinton: ‘You’d Be in Jail’” New York Times website, video, October 10, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/politics/100000004701741/trump-to-clinton-youd-be-in-jail.html; Yochi Dreazen, “Trump’s Love for Brutal Leaders Like the Philippines’ Rodrigo Duterte, Explained,” Vox, May 1, 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2017/5/1/15502610/trump-philippines-rodrigo-duterte-obama-putin-erdogan-dictators. 2. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18, quotation on p. 4; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3. For a variety of early responses to Fukuyama, see for example essays by Harvey Mansfield, E. O. Wilson, Gertrude Himmelfarb, Robin Fox, Robert J. Samuelson, and Joseph S. Nye, “Responses to Fukuyama,” National Interest, no. 56 (Summer 1989): 34–44. 4.

Source: US Census Bureau, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-Born Population of the United States: 1850–2000,” https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0081/twps0081.html; and Pew Research Center tabulations of 2010 and 2015 American Community Survey (IPUMS) in Gustavo López and Kristen Bialik: “Key Findings about U.S. Immigrants,” Pew Research Center, Washington, DC, May, 3, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/03/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/. Acknowledgments At the end of “The End of History?,” Francis Fukuyama revealed that he had some doubts about whether history would really end: The end of history will be a very sad time. The struggle for recognition, the willingness to risk one’s life for a purely abstract goal, the worldwide ideological struggle that called forth daring, courage, imagination, and idealism, will be replaced by economic calculation, the endless solving of technical problems, environmental concerns, and the satisfaction of sophisticated consumer demands.

The future, it seemed, belonged to liberal democracy. The idea that democracy was sure to triumph has come to be associated with the work of Francis Fukuyama. In a sensational essay published in the late 1980s, Fukuyama argued that the conclusion of the Cold War would lead to “the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” Democracy’s triumph, he proclaimed in a phrase that has come to encapsulate the heady optimism of 1989, would mark “The End of History.”2 Plenty of critics took Fukuyama to task for his supposed naiveté. Some argued that the spread of liberal democracy was far from inevitable, fearing (or hoping) that many countries would prove resistant to this Western import.


State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century by Francis Fukuyama

Asian financial crisis, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, centre right, corporate governance, demand response, Doha Development Round, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, Hernando de Soto, information asymmetry, liberal world order, Live Aid, Nick Leeson, Pareto efficiency, Potemkin village, precautionary principle, price stability, principal–agent problem, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, structural adjustment programs, Suez crisis 1956, tacit knowledge, technology bubble, The Market for Lemons, The Nature of the Firm, transaction costs, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, Westphalian system

state-building state-building governance and world order in the 21st century f r a n c i s f u k u ya m a cornell univer sit y press I t h a c a , N e w Yo r k Copyright © 2004 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2004 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fukuyama, Francis. State-building : governance and world order in the 21st century / Francis Fukuyama. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index.

It was only as a result of actions by states that were willing to decisively use traditional forms of military power— the Croatians in the case of Bosnia and the Americans in the case of Kosovo—that Serbian domination was ended and the Balkans pacified. Robert Kagan put the matter in the following manner. The Europeans are the ones who actually believe they are living at the end of history–that is, in a largely peaceful world that to an weak states and international legitimacy 117 increasing degree can be governed by law, norms, and international agreements. In this world, power politics and classical realpolitik have become obsolete. Americans, by contrast, think they are still living in history, and need to use traditional power-political means to deal with threats from Iraq, al-Qaida, North Korea, and other malignant forces.


pages: 442 words: 130,526

The Billionaire Raj: A Journey Through India's New Gilded Age by James Crabtree

"World Economic Forum" Davos, accounting loophole / creative accounting, Asian financial crisis, behavioural economics, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Branko Milanovic, business climate, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, colonial rule, commodity super cycle, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate raider, creative destruction, crony capitalism, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, facts on the ground, failed state, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global supply chain, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, informal economy, Joseph Schumpeter, land bank, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, McMansion, megacity, Meghnad Desai, middle-income trap, New Urbanism, offshore financial centre, open economy, Parag Khanna, Pearl River Delta, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, post-truth, public intellectual, quantitative easing, rent-seeking, Rubik’s Cube, Shenzhen special economic zone , Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, smart cities, special economic zone, spectrum auction, tech billionaire, The Great Moderation, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, yellow journalism, young professional

In the three decades since Rajiv Gandhi last won a victory on a similar scale, both the Congress and the BJP had been weakened by regional and caste-based political rivals, and fragile governing coalitions had become the norm in New Delhi. But now Modi had crafted a new and popular nationalism, which drew strength from the decline of the older identity the Congress represented. Modi’s career had barely begun in 1989, the year when Francis Fukuyama wrote “The End of History,” his essay in the National Interest predicting the triumph of Western-style free-market democracy. “It is not necessary that all societies become successful liberal societies, merely that they end their ideological pretensions of representing different and higher forms of human society,” Fukuyama argued.39 Already a democracy, post-socialist India should have provided a neat test case for the brand of this free-market democratic shift.

This in turn should form part of a broader set of changes that are described in India as a transition from a “deals-based” to a “rules-based” model of capitalism, meaning one whose rules allow little political and bureaucratic discretion over public resources.13 Yet even this will be far from straightforward. Francis Fukuyama describes this shift away from a “patrimonial” state, meaning one marked by corruption and clientelism, as the defining challenge for all developing nations. “[It is] much more difficult,” he writes, “than making the transition from an authoritarian political system to a democratic one.”14 This balance of growth and corruption then lies at the heart of the struggles of India’s industrial economy.

Rajesh Kumar Singh and Devidutta Tripathy, “India Moves Resolution of $150 Billion Bad Debt Problem into RBI’s Court,” Reuters, May 6, 2017. 24. Hofstadter, The Age of Reform, p. 11. 25. T. N. Ninan, “India’s Gilded Age,” Seminar, January 2013. 26. Twain and Warner, The Gilded Age. 27. Francis Fukuyama, “What Is Corruption?” Research Institute for Development, Growth and Economics, 2016. 28. Jayant Sinha and Ashutosh Varshney, “It Is Time for India to Rein In Its Robber Barons,” Financial Times, January 7, 2011. 29. Data compiled by Gapminder.org, which takes India’s 2013 GDP per capita data from a cross-country comparison based on 2005 dollars.


pages: 354 words: 92,470

Grave New World: The End of Globalization, the Return of History by Stephen D. King

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 9 dash line, Admiral Zheng, air freight, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, Asian financial crisis, bank run, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, bilateral investment treaty, bitcoin, blockchain, Bonfire of the Vanities, borderless world, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, British Empire, business cycle, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, central bank independence, collateralized debt obligation, colonial rule, corporate governance, credit crunch, currency manipulation / currency intervention, currency peg, currency risk, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, debt deflation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, Edward Snowden, eurozone crisis, facts on the ground, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, global supply chain, global value chain, Global Witness, Great Leap Forward, hydraulic fracturing, Hyman Minsky, imperial preference, income inequality, income per capita, incomplete markets, inflation targeting, information asymmetry, Internet of things, invisible hand, Jeremy Corbyn, joint-stock company, Kickstarter, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, middle-income trap, moral hazard, Nixon shock, offshore financial centre, oil shock, old age dependency ratio, paradox of thrift, Peace of Westphalia, plutocrats, post-truth, price stability, profit maximization, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rent-seeking, reserve currency, reshoring, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, Scramble for Africa, Second Machine Age, Skype, South China Sea, special drawing rights, technology bubble, The Great Moderation, The Market for Lemons, the market place, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, trade liberalization, trade route, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

In an earlier, supposedly more peaceful era, Norman Angell’s supporters hoped that common sense would prevail, that war would be futile because it would be mutually destructive. Economic interdependency was so great that only a madman would go to war. Having suffered brain damage at birth, Kaiser Wilhelm II unfortunately went on to prove the point.18 Francis Fukuyama admitted in 1992 that he could not guarantee the end of history. For him, the biggest objection came from Nietzsche, ‘who believed that modern democracy represented not the self-mastery of former slaves, but the unconditional victory of the slave and a kind of slavish morality … The last man had no desire to be recognized as greater than others, and without such desire no excellence or achievement was possible.’19 Yet, as Soviet communism collapsed, Fukuyama’s disciples were convinced that Western liberal democracy – and Western free-market capitalism – had triumphed.

(i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Byzantium (i) Cabinet (UK) (i) California (i), (ii) caliphates (i), (ii), (iii) Callaghan, Jim (i), (ii) Cameron, David (i) Canada a reputable country (i) Asian Development Bank and (i) closes gap on US (i) Irish emigrate to (i), (ii) North America Free Trade Agreement (i), (ii) TPP (i) Cape of Good Hope (i) capital, mobility of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) see also cross-border capital flow Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Thomas Piketty) (i) capitalism communism and (i) free-market capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Fukuyama’s disciples on (i) Steffens and Shaw on (i) US economic model and (i) Caribbean (i) Carter, Jimmy (i) Castillon, Battle of (i) Castro, Fidel (i) Catherine of Aragon (i) Catherine the Great (i) Catholics (i), (ii), (iii) Caucasus (i), (ii) Central African Republic (i), (ii) Central America (i) Central Asia (i), (ii), (iii) see also Asia central banks (i), (ii) see also bankers inflation targets (i) Kosmos (i) price distortion (i) printing money (i), (ii) quantitative easing (i), (ii), (iii) zero interest rates and (i) Chad (i) Chechens (i) checks and balances (i), (ii) Chile (i) China (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) 1980 emergence (i) ageing population (i) attracting Western investment (i) balance of payments surplus (i) boom to slowdown (i) Brazil and (i) British in (i) Coca-Cola and (i) demand for German goods (i) Deng Xiaoping (i) Disney and (i) economic resurgence (i), (ii) excess capital in US (i) foreign capital for (i) iPhones (i) Japan and (i) living standards (i) military spending (i) OECD and (i) per capita incomes (i), (ii) ratifies Paris climate deal (i) rise of renminbi (i), (ii) Russia threatens (i) South China Sea and neighbour disputes (i) TPP and (i) treaty ports (i) Trump’s protectionism and (i) US tries to contain (i), (ii), (iii) Chongqing (i), (ii) Christianity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Churchill, Winston (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)n1 CIA (i) Ciudadanos (i) Cleveland, Grover (i) climate change (i), (ii) Clinton, Hillary 2016 campaign (i) Bernie Sanders opposes (i) concerns of supporters (i) rejects TPP (i), (ii) Syria (i) wins Democrat nomination (i) clubs (i), (ii) Cobden, Richard (i), (ii), (iii) Coca-Cola (i) ‘coffin ships’ (i) Cold War binary rivalry, a (i) economic differences (i) end of (i), (ii) globalization and (i) NATO and (i) Soviet living standards (i) collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) (i) Collins, Philip (i) Columbus, Christopher (i), (ii), (iii) commodity markets (i), (ii), (iii) common sense (i) Commonwealth (i) communism Berlin Wall and (i) capitalism and (i) Cuba (i) Marx’s stages (i) Shaw extols (i) Soviet Union collapse and (i), (ii) Como, Lake (i) Comptoir National d’Escompte de Paris (i) Concert of Europe (i) Congo (i) Congress (US) 1933 banking crisis (i) American public’s confidence in (i) Bush Jnr on terrorism (i) Immigration Act 1917 (i) Japanese sanctions (i), (ii) Smoot–Hawley tariff (i) Congress of Vienna (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Connally, John (i) Conolly, Arthur (i) Conservative Party (i), (ii) Constantinople (i), (ii) Constitutional Tribunal (Poland) (i) ‘Convention of Peking’ (i) Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (i) Corbyn, Jeremy (i), (ii) Córdoba (i), (ii) corporate scandals (i) Corroyer, Edouard (i) Court of Cassation (Egypt) (i) Crécy, Battle of (i) Creole languages (i) Crimea (i), (ii) Crimean War (19th century) (i) crop yields (i) cross-border capital flow allocation of resources and (i) emerging markets and (i), (ii) extraordinary growth of (i), (ii), (iii) globalization dominated by (i) inequality and (i) Varoufakis tries to limit (i) Cuba (i) Czech Republic (i) Czechoslovakia (i) Darius the Great (i) Darwin, Charles (i) Davos (i), (ii) de Gaulle, Charles (i), (ii) debt (i) Africa (i) China (i) debt to income ratios (i) government debt (i) Latin America (i) low inflation and (i) deflation (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Delhi (i) demand management (i), (ii) Democratic Party (US) (i), (ii) Democratic Republic of the Congo (i) Denfert-Rochereau, Eugène (i) Deng Xiaoping (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Denmark (i), (ii) Department of Housing and Urban Development (US) (i) deposit insurance (i) devaluation 1930s (i), (ii), (iii) dollars, gold and (i) Eisenhower and Britain (i) franc (i) right conditions for (i) Diaoyu (i) Disney (i), (ii) Doha Round (i) dollar (US) see American dollar Dow Jones Industrial Average (i) Draghi, Mario (i) Duisburg (i) Duterte, Rodrigo (i), (ii) DVDs (i) East Africa (i) see also Africa Eastern Europe EU and its effects (i) importing democracy (i) joining the EU (i), (ii) Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (i) New World emigration (i) Ottoman Empire and (i) Soviet communism and (i), (ii), (iii) ‘Economic Theory of Clubs’ (James Buchanan) (i) Ecuador (i) Eden, Anthony (i), (ii) Edison, Thomas (i) Edison Electric (i) educational attainment (i) Edward VI, King (i) Egypt (i), (ii), (iii) Einstein, Albert (i) Eisenhower, Dwight D. (i) elites (i) Ellis Island (i) Empire Windrush, SS (i) empires (i) End of Alchemy, The (Mervyn King) (i)n12 End of History, The (Francis Fukuyama) (i), (ii), (iii) England (i), (ii), (iii) see also United Kingdom Enron (i) Erdoğan, Recep Tayyip (i) EU (European Union) asylum seekers (i), (ii), (iii) blame thrown at (i) Brexit (i), (ii) eastward expansion (i) economic success and (i) former Soviet countries and (i) Hamas and (i) increasing membership, effect of (i) Juncker Plan (i) key arrangements lacking (i) Marshall Plan and (i) member states and their citizens (i) nation states and (i) Poland and (i) problems from a break-up of (i) Schengen Agreement (i), (ii) Syrian refugees (i) Eurasian Economic Union (i) European Central Bank (i) European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (i), (ii) European Commission (i) European Economic Community (EEC) (i), (ii) see also EU European Exchange Rate Arrangement (i) European House Ambrosetti (i) European Monetary System (i) European Parliament (i) European Recovery (Marshall) Plan (i) Eurozone 2010 crisis (i), (ii), (iii) debtor and creditor nations (i) gap in living standards and (i) impact on rest of world (i) partial aspects of a nation state (i) Spaniards look for work (i) UK deflation and (i) exchange controls (i), (ii) Exchange Rate Mechanism (i) exchange rates (i), (ii) exclusion, sense of (i) experts (i) Facebook (i), (ii), (iii) FaceTime (i) fashion (i) Federal Reserve 2009 emergency measures (i) Bernanke (i) central to global economy (i) Greenspan (i) IMF and (i), (ii)n21 interest rates and (i) printing money (i) S&P 500 index (i) Volcker (i) Finland (i), (ii), (iii) Finns Party (i) First Opium War (i) First World War aftermath in West (i) immigration during (i) US and (i), (ii), (iii) US view of (i) Versailles (i) world turned upside down (i) Five Star Movement (i), (ii) Florence (i) Forbes (i) Forum Villa d’Este (i) ‘Four Freedoms’ (i), (ii) France American troops stationed (i) banks and Eurozone crisis (i) banning the burqa and niqab (i) Coal and Steel (i), (ii) franc plummets (i) G7 (i) Germany and (i) Mitterrand and (i) per capita incomes (i) position in EU (i) Second Gulf War condemned (i) Suez (i) UN Security Council (i) warship tonnage (i) Franco-Prussian War (i), (ii) Franklin, Benjamin (i) free trade Bernie Sanders opposes (i) British Empire and (i) Cobden (i), (ii) EU and (i) evidence regarding (i) protectionism and (i) RCEP and (i) Soviet communism and (i) TPP and (i) Trump against (i) UK leads the way (i), (ii) Freedom and Justice Party (Egypt) (i) Freedom House (i), (ii) French Indochina (i) French Revolution (i) Friedman, Milton (i) Front National (i) Fukushima (i) Fukuyama, Francis (i), (ii), (iii) G5 (i), (ii) G7 (i), (ii) G20 (i) Gaddafi, Colonel (i) Gallup (i), (ii) Gansu corridor (i) Gansu province (China) (i) Gastarbeiter (i), (ii) GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) creation (i), (ii) industrial nations and (i) protectionism kept at bay (i) rounds of (i), (ii), (iii) Gaza (i) General Electric (GE) (i), (ii) General Strike (i) General Theory (John Maynard Keynes) (i) Geneva (i), (ii) Geneva Convention (i) Genghis Khan (i) Georgia (Europe) (i), (ii), (iii) Germany (i) ageing population (i) American troops stationed (i) asylum seekers (i), (ii) Bundesbank (i) Coal and Steel (i), (ii) financial strength (i) France and (i) G7 (i) Gastarbeiter (i) hatred of inflation (i) history of unification (i) Hitler (i) interest rates (i) migration to US (i) per capita incomes (i) position in EU (i) post-First World War (i) post-Second World War (i), (ii) Second Gulf War condemned (i) Southern Europe deficits and (i) Turkish population (i) warship tonnage (i) Weimar Republic (i) Giralda (i), (ii) glacial melt (i) Global Peace Index (i) globalization 19th century (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) 2016 US election (i) Brexiteers and (i) competing currencies and (i) cross-border capital flows dominate (i) see also cross-border capital flow immigrants and (i), (ii) in big trouble (i) information technology and (i) key claims regarding (i) key drivers (i) nation states and (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) opponents of (i) rich benefit from (i) technology and (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Trump rejects (i), (ii) Glorious Revolution (i) Góes, Carlos (i) GOFF (Global Organization for Financial Flows) (i) gold (i), (ii) 19th century (i), (ii) Churchill re-joins gold standard (i) post-First World War (i) sub-Saharan trade in (i) US dollar and (i) Golden Dawn (i) Google (i), (ii) Gove, Michael (i) Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Act (i) Grand Canal (China) (i) Grand Mosque of Córdoba (i) Great Debasement (i) Great Depression bailing out the banks (i) British Empire survives (i) fears of another (i) GATT and (i) macroeconomics and (i) moving away from the free market (i) Great Game (i) Great Illusion, The (Norman Angell) (i) ‘Great Moderation’ (i), (ii), (iii) ‘Great Society’ (i) ‘Great White Fleet’ (i) Greece asylum seekers and (i) border problems (i) financial weakness (i) joins EU (i) Persia and ancient Greece (i) private sector creditors turn back on (i) Syriza (i), (ii) Greenspan, Alan (i) Grenada (i), (ii)n4 Gresham’s Law (i) Guam (i) Guantanamo Bay (i) Guinness (i) Guizhou province (China) (i), (ii) Gujarat (i) Gulag (i) Gulf States (i) Gulf War, First (i) Gulf War, Second (i), (ii), (iii) Gutt, Camille (i) Haiti (i) Haldeman, H.R.

Yet thanks to the shooting skills of Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo five years later, it turned out that no amount of political or economic logic could prevent a catastrophic conflagration. The First World War turned the world upside down economically, financially and politically. The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires disappeared without trace, while the British Empire began what proved to be its terminal decline. Eighty years on, as the Soviet states began to crumble, Francis Fukuyama, the eminent political scientist, argued that: The most remarkable development of the last quarter of the twentieth century has been the revelation of enormous weaknesses at the core of the world’s seemingly strong dictatorships … liberal democracy remains the only coherent political aspiration … liberal principles in economics – the ‘free market’ – have spread, and have succeeded in producing unprecedented levels of material prosperity, both in industrially developed countries and in countries that had been part of the impoverished Third World.5 More than two decades after the publication of Fukuyama’s The End of History – both as a 1989 short paper6 and a 1992 weighty tome – its claims no longer appear to be quite so secure.


pages: 312 words: 91,835

Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globalization by Branko Milanovic

Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, Black Swan, Branko Milanovic, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, deglobalization, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of the americas, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Gunnar Myrdal, income inequality, income per capita, invisible hand, labor-force participation, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Martin Wolf, means of production, military-industrial complex, mittelstand, moral hazard, Nash equilibrium, offshore financial centre, oil shock, open borders, open immigration, Paul Samuelson, place-making, plutocrats, post scarcity, post-industrial society, profit motive, purchasing power parity, Ralph Nader, Robert Solow, Second Machine Age, seigniorage, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, special economic zone, stakhanovite, trade route, transfer pricing, very high income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce

It was dominated by the Washington Consensus (a set of policy prescriptions that emphasized deregulation and privatization) and the forecasting of the “end of history” (the title of an influential 1989 article by Francis Fukuyama, leading to the book The End of History and the Last Man [1992]). Japan still appeared to be ascendant, but China made a cameo appearance. Many of the books celebrated neoliberalism and predicted its speedy extension to the rest of the world, including the Middle East. Later, the US invasion of Iraq would be justified by, among other things, an appeal to the “end of history.”5 The war was supposed to bring democracy to Iraq and indirectly to the rest of the Arab world, resulting in an end to the intractable conflict between Israelis and Palestinians in negotiations between the now democratic parties.

A much more realistic, and in some areas like migration, strikingly prescient, picture was painted by Alfred Sauvy in his excellent Zero Growth? (1976) (the French original was published in 1973). 5. See Francis Fukuyama’s interview with Spiegel International, “A Model Democracy Is Not Emerging in Iraq” (March 22, 2006), available at http://www.spiegel.de/international/interview-with-ex-neocon-francis-fukuyama-a-model-democracy-is-not-emerging-in-iraq-a-407315.html. 6. It could be that Chinese weapons producers, which are all state-owned, are less belligerent than their American counterparts because there is nothing for them to gain in case of a war. 7.

See also capital; Industrial Revolution and industrialization; labor; skill-biased technological progress economicism, naïve, 73 economic power, 102 economics, discipline of, 234–239 economies, main features of, 246n12 economies of scale, 13 education: twenty-first and twenty-second centuries and, 7, 181; skill-biased technological progress and, 47; twentieth century and, 53, 93–94; preindustrial period and, 70; Brazil and, 82; Chile and, 84; communist countries and, 99; Kuznets cycles and, 99, 117; socialist great leveling and, 100, 102; war and, 102; union density and, 106; race with skills and, 114; United States, 114, 188, 189, 260n24; migrant taxes and, 152; China and, 178; United States and, 181, 263n4; capital/ labor income and, 186–187, 216; globalization and, 207–208, 215–217; equalizing, 218, 219–222; capital income and, 221–222; wages and, 256n21, 263n3; assortative mating and, 260n26; families and, 263n4. See also benign/malign forces; social services effort, work, 140 Ehrlich, Paul, 21 1820–2011, 119–125, 127–132. See also Industrial Revolution; preindustrial period; twentieth century elephant curve, 242n8 Elsby, Michael W. L., 182 emerging market economies, 29 End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama), 157 endowments, 218, 220–222 Engels, Friedrich, 129, 255n14 entrepreneurship, 100–101 entropy index, 254n10 environmental concerns, 232–233, 234, 263n9 epidemics, 50, 57, 62–63, 65, 69, 98. See also benign/malign forces; plague equality of opportunity, 238–239 “equivalent units,” 13 expenditures as share of GDP (United Kingdom and United States), 246n10 exports, 24, 62, 143, 173, 235, 236–237, 241n2 false consciousness, 114, 200, 201–202, 217 families, 112, 141, 215–216, 263n4.


pages: 307 words: 88,745

War for Eternity: Inside Bannon's Far-Right Circle of Global Power Brokers by Benjamin R. Teitelbaum

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Cambridge Analytica, creative destruction, crony capitalism, cryptocurrency, Donald Trump, Etonian, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, Joseph Schumpeter, liberal capitalism, liberal world order, mass immigration, mutually assured destruction, Network effects, public intellectual, Saturday Night Live, school choice, side project, Skype, South China Sea, Steve Bannon, Westphalian system, WikiLeaks

“All that is anti-liberal is good”: “Alexander Dugin (Introduction by Mark Sleboda) Identitär Idé 4 / Identitarian Ideas 4,” YouTube, September 14, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7X-o_ndhSVA. Note that I lightly edit Dugin’s English throughout these quotations, as I do in my interview with him. Francis Fukuyama: Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest 16 (Summer 1989). all three were modernist: These ideas are more fully elaborated in Aleksandr Dugin, The Fourth Political Theory (London: Arktos, 2012), 17. Chapter 12: The Summit nobody seemed to notice: Luca Steinmann, “The Illiberal Far-Right of Aleksandr Dugin.

Because to be a woman or to be a man, that means that we have a collective identity.” This way of thinking about people, defining them as ideally disconnected (liberated) from religion, family, nation, even their own bodies is historically exotic and insidious, he claimed. And as even a proponent of liberalism like Francis Fukuyama understood, it would leave us yearning for community. That problem, Dugin argued, birthed the two main challenges to liberalism in the twentieth century: communism and fascism. Both ideologies aspired to promote an alternative entity—not the individual, but two collectivities, class and race.

Christianity, however, claimed to be a universal truth superseding local beliefs. It guided people to disdain and abandon their roots through its assertion that the past was sin and the future will bring salvation. Especially in its Protestant incarnations, Christianity would unite all humans in the pursuit of a unified goal at the end of history: communion with God. Marxism and capitalism adopted a lot of these ideas, each claiming to be an absolute truth for all people, regardless of blood or creed, and attempting to funnel all toward a unified goal in the future rather than the past—be it earthly communist utopia, personal wealth, or mere social “progress” instead of a union with the divine.


pages: 191 words: 51,242

Unsustainable Inequalities: Social Justice and the Environment by Lucas Chancel

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Anthropocene, behavioural economics, biodiversity loss, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean water, COVID-19, disinformation, Donald Trump, energy security, energy transition, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gini coefficient, green new deal, income inequality, Indoor air pollution, job satisfaction, low skilled workers, offshore financial centre, oil shock, price stability, purchasing power parity, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, Thorstein Veblen, trade liberalization, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, urban planning, very high income, Washington Consensus

This is quite remarkable and deserves to be emphasized: rich nations have swallowed at least some of their pride and accepted, or pretended to accept—I shall return to this point in due course—that the international community as a whole should have a say in determining the course of their own development. The “end of history”—the ultimate stage of liberal democracy theorized by the political scientist Francis Fukuyama—has therefore not yet arrived: all countries, including Western democracies meeting in Rio in 2012, realized that they still had a ways to go before reaching true prosperity.4 The American social scientist David Le Blanc has carefully studied the official resolutions establishing the SDGs in the hope of discovering the central aim that this sprawling agenda seeks to achieve.5 From his analysis it becomes apparent that the goal of reducing inequalities of wealth, gender, power, and access to resources stands out among a network of more or less closely interrelated targets.

World Bank Group, Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2016), https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Divided We Stand: Why Inequality Keeps Rising (Paris: OECD, 2011); Jonathan D. Ostry, Andrew Berg, and Charalambos G. Tsangarides, “Redistribution, Inequality, and Growth,” IMF Discussion Note, February 2014, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2014/sdn1402.pdf. 4. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 5. David Le Blanc, “Towards Integration at Last? The Sustainable Development Goals as a Network of Targets” (working paper no. 141, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, April 10, 2015), https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sd.1582. 6.


pages: 798 words: 240,182

The Transhumanist Reader by Max More, Natasha Vita-More

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 23andMe, Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic, artificial general intelligence, augmented reality, Bill Joy: nanobots, bioinformatics, brain emulation, Buckminster Fuller, cellular automata, clean water, cloud computing, cognitive bias, cognitive dissonance, combinatorial explosion, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, conceptual framework, Conway's Game of Life, cosmological principle, data acquisition, discovery of DNA, Douglas Engelbart, Drosophila, en.wikipedia.org, endogenous growth, experimental subject, Extropian, fault tolerance, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, friendly AI, Future Shock, game design, germ theory of disease, Hans Moravec, hypertext link, impulse control, index fund, John von Neumann, joint-stock company, Kevin Kelly, Law of Accelerating Returns, life extension, lifelogging, Louis Pasteur, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, moral hazard, Network effects, Nick Bostrom, Norbert Wiener, pattern recognition, Pepto Bismol, phenotype, positional goods, power law, precautionary principle, prediction markets, presumed consent, Project Xanadu, public intellectual, radical life extension, Ray Kurzweil, reversible computing, RFID, Ronald Reagan, scientific worldview, silicon-based life, Singularitarianism, social intelligence, stem cell, stochastic process, superintelligent machines, supply-chain management, supply-chain management software, synthetic biology, systems thinking, technological determinism, technological singularity, Ted Nelson, telepresence, telepresence robot, telerobotics, the built environment, The Coming Technological Singularity, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, transaction costs, Turing machine, Turing test, Upton Sinclair, Vernor Vinge, Von Neumann architecture, VTOL, Whole Earth Review, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

Meanwhile, maddened children, deluded fanatics, and terrorists like Theodore Kaczynski (the Unabomber) murder with homemade bombs or stolen passenger jets to express their distaste for this relentless and unprecedented future that has exploded, as it were, into reality. It was refreshing, then, in 2002, to find a public intellectual of Dr. Francis Fukuyama’s ­standing take on the intensely real, serious topic of accelerating biotechnology. Instant fame had embraced Fukuyama a decade earlier when his conservative The End of History (Fukuyama 2006) seemed to explain the Soviet Union’s abrupt collapse. Liberal humanism – democratic, realistic, and market-driven rather than authoritarian – had won the cold war against its authoritarian and deludedly utopian foes.

Shapiro explains “moral category” arguments such as arguments from nature, arguments from identity, from merit, and from external influence, and argues that there are serious problems in distinguishing disorder from augmentation models. This matters because some people have argued in favor of allowing treatments for disorders while prohibiting them for augmentations that are otherwise similar in nature. Philosopher Andy Miah casts a critical eye on Donna Haraway’s concept of the “cyborg” and Francis Fukuyama’s views on “posthumanism.” Miah argues that the technoprogressive pursuit of biological transgressions can enrich individual and collective human life, while also permitting societies to attend to any social injustices that might arise through such behavior. Miah concludes with a full articulation of the concept of “biocultural capital,” which conveys a general, transhumanist justification for human enhancement.

One of the main criticisms of this emerging era is the way in which it may commodify life, the focus of the next section. Life as a Commodity If one acknowledges the merit of systematically reinforcing human biology so it is optimized to flourish – while accepting that one cannot expect certainty of bringing about such conditions – then what objections might there be to such a system? Francis Fukuyama’s (2002) primary concern is the commercial character of such a system of healthcare. He argues that such commercialization will lead inevitably to the commodification of life and this will diminish human flourishing, notably through it bringing about an impoverished view of human dignity. In response, I will seek to explain how the freedom to pursue commercial enhancements may be justified on the basis of what I call the accumulation of biocultural capital.


pages: 329 words: 102,469

Free World: America, Europe, and the Surprising Future of the West by Timothy Garton Ash

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Albert Einstein, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, BRICs, British Empire, call centre, centre right, clean water, Columbine, continuation of politics by other means, cuban missile crisis, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, Eratosthenes, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), James Watt: steam engine, Kickstarter, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, Peace of Westphalia, postnationalism / post nation state, Project for a New American Century, purchasing power parity, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas Malthus, trade liberalization, Washington Consensus, working poor, working-age population, World Values Survey

The fact that this confirmation came from a right-wing American—indeed, one of the fabled, demonized cabal of neoconservatives—doubled the impact. It was as if the devil had just certified the status of the angels. Europeans had already derived their two biggest political ideas of the post–Cold War era from the United States: Francis Fukuyama’s End of History and Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations. Like Kagan’s boutade, both had started as journal articles with a striking, deliberately overstated thesis. The authors’ subsequent caveats and qualifications in the longer book versions passed largely unnoticed. But this was something more.

Then there will be no cause for terror. Underlying the starkest version of this vision is an equally breathtaking analytical premise: that there is now “a single sustainable model for national success: freedom, democracy, and free enterprise.”18 This recalls Francis Fukuyama’s argument for a “worldwide liberal revolution” in his hugely influential article of 1989 and subsequent book on The End of History,19 and the so-called Washington Consensus of the IMF and World Bank in the 1990s. The bald simplicity of this claim for a single sustainable model, with its implicit image of America as a model for the future of all humankind, has offended many Europeans, Africans, Asians, and others who have themselves long been committed to such a post-Enlightenment, global meliorist aspiration.

National security strategy issued on September 17, 2002, section III. All quotations are from the version on http://www.whitehouse.gov. 8. In his State of the Union address to Congress on January 6, 1941. 9. In Newsweek, special Davos edition “Issues 2004,” dated December 2003–February 2004. 10. The list in Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992), p. 49, seems to me arbitrarily short. I am most grateful to Jonathan Keates, and his disintegrating Almanach de Gotha, for help in augmenting it. 11. This and the following figures follow Larry Diamond, “A Report Card on Democracy,” Hoover Digest, 2000, no. 3, pp. 91–100, p. 91. 12.


pages: 225 words: 54,010

A Short History of Progress by Ronald Wright

Albert Einstein, Atahualpa, Bretton Woods, British Empire, clean water, Columbian Exchange, cuban missile crisis, Easter island, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Haber-Bosch Process, Hernando de Soto, invention of agriculture, It's morning again in America, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, land reform, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, nuclear winter, out of africa, Parkinson's law, post-war consensus, precautionary principle, Ronald Reagan, technological determinism, Thomas Malthus, urban sprawl

In both its capitalist and communist versions, the great promise of modernity was progress without limit and without end. The collapse of the Soviet Union led many to conclude that there was really only one way of progress after all. In 1992 Francis Fukuyama, a former U.S. State Department official, declared that capitalism and democracy were the “end” of history — not only its destination but its goal.8 Doubters pointed out that capitalism and democracy are not necessarily bedfellows, citing Nazi Germany, modern China, and the worldwide archipelago of sweatshop tyrannies. Yet Fukuyama’s naive triumphalism strengthened a belief, mainly on the political right, that those who have not chosen the true way forward should be made to do so for their own good — by force, if necessary.

Whether the Russians uttered the same threat, I don’t know. But it was certainly a credible one. Even if a nuclear “exchange” (as the euphemism went) failed to extinguish all higher forms of life, it would have ended civilization worldwide. No crops worth eating would grow in a nuclear winter. 8. See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 9. Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism, 1711; Thomas Henry Huxley, On Elementary Instruction in Physiology, 1877. 10. Quoted in Robert J. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 79. 11. William Shakespeare, Hamlet, act 2, scene 2. 12.

A measure of participation filtered grudgingly down the social pyramid, while the new industrial economy nourished a growing middle class.33 We in the lucky countries of the West now regard our two-century bubble of freedom and affluence as normal and inevitable; it has even been called the “end” of history, in both a temporal and teleological sense.34 Yet this new order is an anomaly: the opposite of what usually happens as civilizations grow. Our age was bankrolled by the seizing of half a planet, extended by taking over most of the remaining half, and has been sustained by spending down new forms of natural capital, especially fossil fuels.


pages: 537 words: 158,544

Second World: Empires and Influence in the New Global Order by Parag Khanna

Abraham Maslow, Admiral Zheng, affirmative action, anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, Bartolomé de las Casas, Branko Milanovic, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, central bank independence, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, complexity theory, continuation of politics by other means, crony capitalism, death from overwork, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, dual-use technology, Edward Glaeser, energy security, European colonialism, export processing zone, facts on the ground, failed state, flex fuel, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, gentrification, Gini coefficient, global reserve currency, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, haute couture, Hernando de Soto, illegal immigration, income inequality, informal economy, invisible hand, Islamic Golden Age, karōshi / gwarosa / guolaosi, Khyber Pass, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, land reform, Londongrad, low cost airline, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, megacity, meritocracy, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, no-fly zone, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, oil-for-food scandal, open borders, open economy, Parag Khanna, Pax Mongolica, Pearl River Delta, pirate software, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, Potemkin village, price stability, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, reserve currency, restrictive zoning, rising living standards, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Skype, South China Sea, special economic zone, stem cell, Stephen Hawking, Suez crisis 1956, Thomas L Friedman, trade route, trickle-down economics, uranium enrichment, urban renewal, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce

Geopolitics has since evolved into a family of holistic power formulae applied across the world and over long time horizons, what Fernand Braudel termed the longue durée.19 But it remains Toynbee’s story of challenge and response. GEOPOLITICS VERSUS GLOBALIZATION? In the 1990s, a great debate took place between the contrasting visions of Francis Fukuyama (The End of History) and Samuel Huntington (The Clash of Civilizations), with the former generally caricatured as utopian and the latter as fatalistic. The grand predecessor to this dichotomy was the tension between the worldviews of Oswald Spengler and Arnold Toynbee. Spengler opened The Decline of the West (1918) with the bold claim, “This book will for the first time attempt to predict history.”

Today there are numerous equivalent statements on the pacifying effect of globalization, each echoing Norman Angell’s Great Illusion claim of the “complete economic futility of conquest.” Francis Fukuyama argues for the end of ideological struggle; John Mueller observes that the prospect of total, annihilating war makes it “subrationally unthinkable” Jonathan Schell and Peter Singer see the emergence of global consciousness as the “moral equivalent of war” or a “weapon of civilization” Robert Wright demonstrates that the accumulation of positive outcomes disincentivizes conflict; and Anatol Lieven and John Hulsman argue for a “Great Capitalist Peace.” See Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Avon Books, 1992); Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Schell, The Unconquerable World: Power, Nonviolence, and the Will of the People (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003); Singer, One World: The Ethics of Globalization (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003); Wright, Non-Zero: The Logic of Human Destiny (New York: Vintage, 2000); and Lieven and Hulsman, Ethical Realism. 69.

Stateness refers to a government’s capacity to enforce its power, ranging from minimal functions (public goods, property rights, defense) to intermediate functions (addressing externalities, education, regulation, social insurance) to more activist roles (industrial policy, wealth redistribution). See Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the Twenty-first Century (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004). Four decades ago, Samuel Huntington wrote in Political Order in Changing Societies that “the most important political distinction among countries concerns not their form of government, but their degree of government.


pages: 454 words: 107,163

Break Through: Why We Can't Leave Saving the Planet to Environmentalists by Michael Shellenberger, Ted Nordhaus

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, bread and circuses, carbon credits, carbon tax, clean water, conceptual framework, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Easter island, facts on the ground, falling living standards, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Great Leap Forward, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, Indoor air pollution, insecure affluence, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, knowledge economy, land reform, loss aversion, market fundamentalism, McMansion, means of production, meta-analysis, Michael Shellenberger, microcredit, new economy, oil shock, postindustrial economy, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Richard Florida, science of happiness, seminal paper, Silicon Valley, Stewart Brand, Ted Nordhaus, the strength of weak ties, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, trade liberalization, War on Poverty, We are as Gods, winner-take-all economy, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

Fukuyama acknowledges that he signed the 1998 letter to Clinton but then adds, in order to downplay the significance of the letter, “An American invasion of Iraq was not then in the cards, however, and would not be until the events of September 11, 2001” (x). Fukuyama implies that his position changed after 9/11, but if that were the case then he would not have signed the September 20, 2001, letter urging President George W. Bush to remove Hussein from power—a fact he is careful not to mention in America at the Crossroads. [back] 7. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 338. [back] 8. Fukuyama himself acknowledged his indebtedness to Marx’s vision of historical development and approvingly quotes Ken Jowitt’s reflection that “in [September 11’s] aftermath, the Bush administration has concluded that Fukuyama’s historical timetable is too laissez-faire and not nearly attentive enough to the levers of historical change . . .

America’s humiliation in Iraq, nuclear proliferation in Iran, and the threat of further terrorism—these are likely to trigger greater insecurity and fear, psychological states that history and a great deal of empirical research show drive conservatism far more strongly than liberalism.2 In this context, to remain reality based is to accept a status quo that is bad for progressives everywhere from Tehran to Akron. 1. In 2006, as Iraq spiraled ever further out of the Bush administration’s control, the neoconservative intellectual consensus behind the U.S. invasion began to come apart. That year, a leading American neoconservative, Francis Fukuyama, published America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy, in which he broke from neoconservativism.3 Once in 1998 and again in 2001, after September 11, Fukuyama signed open letters urging military action be taken to remove Saddam Hussein from power.4 “Failure to undertake such an effort,” the 2001 letter to President Bush warned, “will constitute an early and perhaps decisive surrender in the war on international terrorism.”5 America at the Crossroads served as his mea culpa, albeit one that required that he airbrush his advocacy of U.S. military action in Iraq after 9/11.6 In the book, Fukuyama reasserted an argument he had made fourteen years earlier in The End of History and the Last Man, which was that the collapse of the Soviet Union and the democratization of former right-wing dictatorships in places like Chile signaled the end of history prophesied by the philosopher Hegel in the early nineteenth century.

Suddenly we have natures, and it is impossible to make natures play any political role whatsoever.” 10. Greatness 1. Ron Suskind, “Without a Doubt,” New York Times Magazine, October 17, 2004. [back] 2. John T. Jost et al., “Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition,” Psychological Bulletin 129, no. 3 (2003): 339–75. [back] 3. Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006). [back] 4. The January 26, 1998, letter to President Clinton that Fukuyama signed reads, “The only acceptable strategy is one that eliminates the possibility that Iraq will be able to use or threaten to use weapons of mass destruction.


pages: 410 words: 106,931

Age of Anger: A History of the Present by Pankaj Mishra

anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Boeing 747, Brexit referendum, British Empire, classic study, colonial rule, continuation of politics by other means, creative destruction, Donald Trump, Edward Snowden, Evgeny Morozov, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Fellow of the Royal Society, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, global village, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, informal economy, invisible hand, liberal capitalism, Mahatma Gandhi, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Nelson Mandela, Oklahoma City bombing, Peter Thiel, Philip Mirowski, planetary scale, plutocrats, power law, precariat, public intellectual, Republic of Letters, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, smart cities, Snapchat, stem cell, technological solutionism, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Timothy McVeigh, trade route, traveling salesman, urban planning, Vilfredo Pareto, wage slave, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

In particular, the attacks of 9/11, breaking into the general celebratory mood of globalization, sharpened an old divide. How could, it was felt, people be so opposed to modernity, and all the many goods it had to offer to people around the world: equality, liberty, prosperity, toleration, pluralism and representative government. Having proclaimed the end of history, Francis Fukuyama wondered whether there is ‘something about Islam’ that made ‘Muslim societies particularly resistant to modernity’. Such perplexity, widely shared, was answered by a simple idea: that these opponents of modernity were religious fanatics – jihadists – seeking martyrdom; they were unenlightened zealots.

This religion of universal progress has had many presumptive popes and encyclicals: from the nineteenth-century dream championed by The Economist, in which capital, goods, jobs and people freely circulate, to Henry Luce’s proclamation of an ‘American century’ of free trade, and ‘Modernization Theory’, which proclaimed a ‘great world revolution in human aspirations and economic development’. Writing soon after 9/11, Francis Fukuyama seemed more convinced than ever that ‘modernity is a very powerful freight train that will not be derailed by recent events, however painful and unprecedented. Democracy and free markets will continue to expand over time as the dominant organizing principles for much of the world.’ As late as 2008, Fareed Zakaria could declare in his much-cited book, The Post-American World, that ‘the rise of the rest is a consequence of American ideas and actions’ and that ‘the world is going America’s way’, with countries ‘becoming more open, market-friendly and democratic’, their numerous poor ‘slowly being absorbed into productive and growing economies’.

Born in 1958, a year after Osama bin Laden, to a devout middle-class family in Aleppo, al-Suri dropped out of university in 1980 to join a radical group that opposed Syria’s secular nationalist Baath Party and advocated an Islamic state based on Shariah law. Working his way through various Islamist organizations in Asia and Africa, al-Suri ended up designing a leaderless and global jihad for uprooted men like himself. A Militant Intelligentsia Al-Suri, labelled by Newsweek the ‘Francis Fukuyama of al-Qaeda’, was more accurately the Mikhail Bakunin of the Muslim world in his preference for anarchist tactics. In his magnum opus, The Global Islamic Resistance Call (2004), al-Suri scorned hierarchical forms of political organization, exhorting a jihadi strategy based on ‘unconnected cells’ and ‘individual operations’ – a call answered by today’s auto-intoxicated killers.


pages: 460 words: 107,454

Stakeholder Capitalism: A Global Economy That Works for Progress, People and Planet by Klaus Schwab, Peter Vanham

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, agricultural Revolution, air traffic controllers' union, Anthropocene, Apple II, Asian financial crisis, Asperger Syndrome, basic income, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, biodiversity loss, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, blue-collar work, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business process, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean tech, clean water, cloud computing, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, colonial rule, company town, contact tracing, contact tracing app, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, currency peg, cyber-physical system, decarbonisation, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Diane Coyle, digital divide, don't be evil, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, family office, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gender pay gap, general purpose technology, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, global village, Google bus, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, high net worth, hiring and firing, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, independent contractor, industrial robot, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, job automation, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, labor-force participation, lockdown, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, microplastics / micro fibres, Mikhail Gorbachev, mini-job, mittelstand, move fast and break things, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, new economy, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, precariat, Productivity paradox, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, reserve currency, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, San Francisco homelessness, School Strike for Climate, self-driving car, seminal paper, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , Shenzhen was a fishing village, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, the scientific method, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, transfer pricing, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, Yom Kippur War, young professional, zero-sum game

Shortly thereafter, political reunification of Germany was at last established. And by 1991, the Soviet Union had officially disintegrated. Many economies that lay in its sphere of influence, including those of East Germany, the Baltics, Poland, Hungary, and Romania, turned toward the West and its capitalist, free-market model. “The end of history,” as Francis Fukuyama would call it later,21 had arrived, it seemed. Europe got another boost, this time leading to even deeper political and economic integration and the establishment of a common market and a monetary union, with the euro currency as its apex. At Davos, we felt the winds of change as well.

Convinced of the organic benefits of a globalized world, many governments opted to embrace free trade and floating currency exchanges and eliminate barriers to foreign investment at an accelerated pace since the early 1990s. This seemed like a no-brainer following the victory of the American-led capitalist model over the Soviet-led communist one—what Francis Fukuyama famously called “the end of history.” But it ignored the reality that the market does not always knows best—or21 at least it doesn't automatically look after the interests of everyone involved. Economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Mariana Mazzucato, Dani Rodrik, and many others observed in recent work that growing financialization and financial globalization in fact increases the instability in the economic system and increases both the likelihood and depth of financial crises.

persistentId=doi:10.21950/BBZVBN/U54JIA&version=1.0. 18 “Trade in the Digital Era,” OECD, March 2019, https://www.oecd.org/going-digital/trade-in-the-digital-era.pdf. 19 As the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology explained: “ Tropical rainforests are often called the ‘lungs of the planet’ because they generally draw in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen,” https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/news/tropical-rainforests-lungs-planet-reveal-true-sensitivity-global-warming. 20 “The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, Dani Rodrik, W.W. Norton, 2011, https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/publications/globalization-paradox-democracy-and-future-world-economy” 21 “The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama, Penguin Books, 1993”. 22 “The Rise and Fall of Hungary,” Zsolt Darvas, The Guardian, October 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/business/blog/2008/oct/29/hungary-imf. 23 “How Rotterdam Is Using Blockchain to Reinvent Global Trade,” Port of Rotterdam, September 2019, https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/news-and-press-releases/how-rotterdam-is-using-blockchain-to-reinvent-global-trade. 24 Interview with William and Winston Utomo by Peter Vanham, Jakarta, Indonesia, October 16, 2020. 6 Technology A Changing Labor Market The press release touted a most remarkable headline: “Denmark in the world's top 10 for robots.”1 The organization behind the release was not a Danish tech firm, media outlet, or politician.


pages: 460 words: 107,454

Stakeholder Capitalism: A Global Economy That Works for Progress, People and Planet by Klaus Schwab

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, agricultural Revolution, air traffic controllers' union, Anthropocene, Apple II, Asian financial crisis, Asperger Syndrome, basic income, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, biodiversity loss, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, blue-collar work, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business process, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, car-free, carbon footprint, carbon tax, centre right, clean tech, clean water, cloud computing, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, colonial rule, company town, contact tracing, contact tracing app, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, currency peg, cyber-physical system, decarbonisation, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, Diane Coyle, digital divide, don't be evil, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, family office, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gender pay gap, general purpose technology, George Floyd, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, global village, Google bus, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, high net worth, hiring and firing, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, independent contractor, industrial robot, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, job automation, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, labor-force participation, lockdown, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, means of production, megacity, microplastics / micro fibres, Mikhail Gorbachev, mini-job, mittelstand, move fast and break things, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, new economy, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Thiel, precariat, Productivity paradox, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, reserve currency, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, San Francisco homelessness, School Strike for Climate, self-driving car, seminal paper, shareholder value, Shenzhen special economic zone , Shenzhen was a fishing village, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, the scientific method, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, transfer pricing, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, Yom Kippur War, young professional, zero-sum game

Shortly thereafter, political reunification of Germany was at last established. And by 1991, the Soviet Union had officially disintegrated. Many economies that lay in its sphere of influence, including those of East Germany, the Baltics, Poland, Hungary, and Romania, turned toward the West and its capitalist, free-market model. “The end of history,” as Francis Fukuyama would call it later,21 had arrived, it seemed. Europe got another boost, this time leading to even deeper political and economic integration and the establishment of a common market and a monetary union, with the euro currency as its apex. At Davos, we felt the winds of change as well.

Convinced of the organic benefits of a globalized world, many governments opted to embrace free trade and floating currency exchanges and eliminate barriers to foreign investment at an accelerated pace since the early 1990s. This seemed like a no-brainer following the victory of the American-led capitalist model over the Soviet-led communist one—what Francis Fukuyama famously called “the end of history.” But it ignored the reality that the market does not always knows best—or21 at least it doesn't automatically look after the interests of everyone involved. Economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Mariana Mazzucato, Dani Rodrik, and many others observed in recent work that growing financialization and financial globalization in fact increases the instability in the economic system and increases both the likelihood and depth of financial crises.

persistentId=doi:10.21950/BBZVBN/U54JIA&version=1.0. 18 “Trade in the Digital Era,” OECD, March 2019, https://www.oecd.org/going-digital/trade-in-the-digital-era.pdf. 19 As the UK Centre for Ecology and Hydrology explained: “ Tropical rainforests are often called the ‘lungs of the planet’ because they generally draw in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen,” https://www.ceh.ac.uk/news-and-media/news/tropical-rainforests-lungs-planet-reveal-true-sensitivity-global-warming. 20 “The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy, Dani Rodrik, W.W. Norton, 2011, https://drodrik.scholar.harvard.edu/publications/globalization-paradox-democracy-and-future-world-economy” 21 “The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama, Penguin Books, 1993”. 22 “The Rise and Fall of Hungary,” Zsolt Darvas, The Guardian, October 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/business/blog/2008/oct/29/hungary-imf. 23 “How Rotterdam Is Using Blockchain to Reinvent Global Trade,” Port of Rotterdam, September 2019, https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en/news-and-press-releases/how-rotterdam-is-using-blockchain-to-reinvent-global-trade. 24 Interview with William and Winston Utomo by Peter Vanham, Jakarta, Indonesia, October 16, 2020. 6 Technology A Changing Labor Market The press release touted a most remarkable headline: “Denmark in the world's top 10 for robots.”1 The organization behind the release was not a Danish tech firm, media outlet, or politician.


pages: 446 words: 578

The end of history and the last man by Francis Fukuyama

affirmative action, anti-communist, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Bonfire of the Vanities, business cycle, centre right, classic study, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Exxon Valdez, F. W. de Klerk, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, Herbert Marcuse, Hernando de Soto, income inequality, Isaac Newton, Joan Didion, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, kremlinology, land reform, liberal world order, liberation theology, life extension, linear programming, long peace, means of production, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, New Journalism, nuclear winter, old-boy network, open economy, post-industrial society, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Socratic dialogue, Strategic Defense Initiative, strikebreaker, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, zero-sum game

THE END OF HISTORY AND THE LAST MAN Francis Fukuyama FREE PRESS NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY FREE PRESS A Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 Copyright © 1992, 2006 by Francis Fukuyama All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. First Free Press trade paperback edition 2006 FREE PRESS and colophon are trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc. For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales: 1-800-456-6798 or business@simonandschuster.com Manufactured in the United States of America 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 The Library of Congress has catalogued the hardcover edition as follows: Fukuyama, Francis.

For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales: 1-800-456-6798 or business@simonandschuster.com Manufactured in the United States of America 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 The Library of Congress has catalogued the hardcover edition as follows: Fukuyama, Francis. The end of history and the last man / Francis Fukuyama p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. History—Philosophy. 2. World politics—1945-. I. Title. D16.8F85. 1992 91-29677 901—dc20 CIP ISBN-13: 978-0-743-28455-4 eISBN-13: 978-1-4165-3178-4 www.SimonandSchuster.com To Julia and David CONTENTS Acknowledgments By Way of an Introduction Part I AN OLD QUESTION ASKED ANEW 1 Our Pessimism 2 The Weakness of Strong States I 3 The Weakness of Strong States II, or, Eating Pineapples on the Moon 4 The Worldwide Liberal Revolution Part II THE OLD AGE OF MANKIND 5 An Idea for a Universal History 6 The Mechanism of Desire 7 No Barbarians at the Gates 8 Accumulation without End 9 The Victory of the VCR 10 In the Land of Education 11 The Former Question Answered 12 No Democracy without Democrats Part III THE STRUGGLE FOR RECOGNITION 13 In the Beginning, a Battle to the Death for Pure Prestige 14 The First Man 15 A Vacation in Bulgaria 16 The Beast with Red Cheeks 17 The Rise and Fall of Thymos 18 Lordship and Bondage 19 The Universal and Homogeneous State Part IV LEAPING OVER RHODES 20 The Coldest of All Cold Monsters 21 The Thymotic Origins of Work 22 Empires of Resentment, Empires of Deference 23 The Unreality of “Realism” 24 The Power of the Powerless 25 National Interests 26 Toward a Pacific Union Part V THE LAST MAN 27 In the Realm of Freedom 28 Men without Chests 29 Free and Unequal 30 Perfect Rights and Defective Duties 31 Immense Wars of the Spirit Afterword to the Second Paperback Edition of The End of History and the Last Man Notes Bibliography Index ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The “End of History” would never have existed, either as an article or as this present book, without the invitation to deliver a lecture by that title during the 1988-89 academic year, extended by Professors Nathan Tarcov and Allan Bloom of the John M.

Nor can we in the final analysis know, provided a majority of the wagons eventually reach the same town, whether their occupants, having looked around a bit at their new surroundings, will not find them inadequate and set their eyes on a new and more distant journey. Afterword to the Second Paperback Edition of The End of History and the Last Man In the seventeen years that have passed since the original publication of my essay, “The End of History?”, my hypothesis has been criticized from every conceivable point of view. Publication of the second paperback edition of the book The End of History and the Last Man gives me an opportunity to restate the original argument, to answer what I regard as the most serious objections that were raised to it, and to reflect on some of the developments in world politics that have occurred since the summer of 1989.


pages: 404 words: 115,108

They Don't Represent Us: Reclaiming Our Democracy by Lawrence Lessig

2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, Aaron Swartz, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, blockchain, Cambridge Analytica, Cass Sunstein, Columbine, crony capitalism, crowdsourcing, data science, David Brooks, disinformation, do-ocracy, Donald Trump, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Free Software Foundation, Gabriella Coleman, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, John Gilmore, Joi Ito, Mark Zuckerberg, obamacare, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Parag Khanna, plutocrats, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, Sheryl Sandberg, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Skype, speech recognition, Steven Levy, surveillance capitalism, Upton Sinclair, Yochai Benkler

On remedies, see Frances Moore Lappé and Adam Eichen, Daring Democracy: Igniting Power, Meaning, and Connection for the America We Want (Boston: Beacon, 2017). 4.See, e.g., Achen and Bartels, Democracy for Realists. 5.Numbers drawn from Max Roser, “Democracy,” in Our World in Data (2016), available at link #7. For a slightly different reckoning, see Robert A. Dahl, On Democracy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 8. 6.Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” The National Interest 16 (Summer 1989): 6. 7.Steven Kull, “Voter Anger with Government and the 2016 Election: A Survey of American Voters,” Voice of the People, conducted by the Program for Public Consultation, School of Public Policy, University of Maryland (November 2016), available at link #8.

Swing-state Democrats turn a blind eye to steel tariffs. Democrats generally don’t. Rather than a bias that runs in an obvious direction, the sum of these different inequalities bends consistently in no particular direction. This is not the physics of a plutocracy. It is the dynamic of a vetocracy—a “veto-ocracy,” as Francis Fukuyama puts it.129 As Fukuyama describes, the American Constitution already embeds many veto points for any substantial legislation. A law can be stopped in either house. A law can be slowed by the president. A law can be struck down by the courts. A president can refuse to enforce a law. All of these constitute the ways in which the constitutional system makes change difficult.

Lacombe, Billionaires and Stealth Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018). 127.See Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). 128.Indeed, the median household income of the twenty smallest states is below the median household income of the top twenty. See Per Capita Wealth, available at link #79. 129.Francis Fukuyama, Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2014), chap. 34. 130.Van Reybrouck, Against Elections, xiii. 131.See the analysis by Ciara Torres-Spelliscy in “What Drives Climate Change Denial? Campaign Donations and Lobbying,” Brennan Center for Justice, September 19, 2017, available at link #80. 132.See Office of the Director of National Intelligence, “U.S.


pages: 364 words: 112,681

Moneyland: Why Thieves and Crooks Now Rule the World and How to Take It Back by Oliver Bullough

Alan Greenspan, banking crisis, Bernie Madoff, bitcoin, blood diamond, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, BRICs, British Empire, capital controls, central bank independence, corporate governance, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, dark matter, diversification, Donald Trump, energy security, failed state, financial engineering, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Global Witness, high net worth, if you see hoof prints, think horses—not zebras, income inequality, joint-stock company, land bank, liberal capitalism, liberal world order, mass immigration, medical malpractice, Navinder Sarao, offshore financial centre, plutocrats, Plutonomy: Buying Luxury, Explaining Global Imbalances, rent-seeking, Richard Feynman, risk tolerance, Sloane Ranger, sovereign wealth fund, Suez crisis 1956, WikiLeaks

In the summer of 1991, when hardliners in Moscow tried and failed to re-impose the old Soviet ways on their country, I was on a family holiday in the Scottish Highlands, where I spent days trying to coax the radio into cutting through the mountains to tell me what was going on. By the time our holiday was over, the coup had failed, and a new world was dawning. The previously sober historian Francis Fukuyama declared it to be the End of History. The whole world was going to be free. The Good Guys Had Won. I longed to see what was happening in Eastern Europe, and I read hundreds of books by those who had been there before me. While at university, I spent every long summer wandering through the previously forbidden countries of the old Warsaw Pact, revelling in Europe’s reunification.

Much Western political thought envisages the liberal democracies of the ‘developed’ countries as the natural end point of a historical process, and refers to other societies as ‘developing’, as if they are trains on a track which will eventually deliver them to the terminal station where we now live. The political theorist Francis Fukuyama – who has given up on the idea that history has come to an end – argues in his 2011 book The Origins of Political Order that this is a damagingly wrong way of looking at the world. The liberal capitalism of Western Europe, the United States and the other Western countries is not only extremely unusual, but also just one of multiple kinds of government.

It would take too long to list all the books I have read, but here is a brief summary of key texts used in researching different chapters, with suggestions for further reading. 1 – Aladdin’s Cave Mancur Olson’s theories on bandits are set out in Power and Prosperity: Outgrowing Communist and Capitalist Dictatorships (New York: Basic Books, 2000). I also found Francis Fukuyama’s The Origins of Political Order: From Prehuman Times to the French Revolution (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2011; London: Profile Books, 2011) very helpful. Sarah Chayes lays out the connection between corruption and terrorism in unanswerable detail in Thieves of State: Why Corruption Threatens Global Security (New York and London: W.


pages: 228 words: 68,880

Revolting!: How the Establishment Are Undermining Democracy and What They're Afraid Of by Mick Hume

anti-communist, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, central bank independence, colonial rule, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeremy Corbyn, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, non-tariff barriers, Occupy movement, open borders, plutocrats, post-truth, public intellectual, Slavoj Žižek, the scientific method, We are the 99%, World Values Survey

Yet even after the fall of the Berlin Wall, there was little evidence of any renewed faith in democracy among the rulers of the Western world. In 1989 American author Francis Fukuyama’sEnd of History’ thesis was hailed as a statement of the historic triumph of liberal democratic capitalism. Yet there was little real triumphalism in Fukuyama’s argument. He based his case rather on the fact that all the alternatives had been discredited and collapsed. It was hardly a statement of deep commitment to or faith in the democratic cause. Western democracy was the winner by default. When Fukuyama expanded his thesis into a 1992 book, the full title became The End of History and the Last Man. He was at least half-right; the West had won by being the last man standing.

Hitler, Hitler’s Table Talk: 1941–44 (London, 1953), p. 497 39. www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/7805.H_L_Mencken 40. Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship (Cambridge University, revised edition, 1980), p. 173 41. Cited in Runciman, Confidence Trap, pp. 104, 106 42. Ibid., p. 306 43. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, 1992 (Penguin, 2012) 44. The Writings of the Young Karl Marx, Philosophical and Social, translated by L. Easton and K. Guddat (Garden City, NY, 1967), p. 206 Chapter 4: For Europe – against the EU 1. Miguel Herrero de Minon, ‘Europe’s Non-Existent Body Politic’, in de Minon and G.


pages: 247 words: 78,961

The Return of Marco Polo's World: War, Strategy, and American Interests in the Twenty-First Century by Robert D. Kaplan

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, always be closing, California gold rush, collective bargaining, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, Great Leap Forward, Haight Ashbury, high-speed rail, kremlinology, load shedding, mass immigration, megacity, military-industrial complex, no-fly zone, oil-for-food scandal, one-China policy, Parag Khanna, Pax Mongolica, Ronald Reagan, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, the long tail, trade route, Westphalian system, Yom Kippur War

Huntington disdains “rational-choice theory,” the reigning fad in political science, which assumes that human behavior is predictable but which fails to take account of fear, envy, hatred, self-sacrifice, and other human passions that are essential to an understanding of politics. In an age of academic operators he is an old-fashioned teacher who speculates historically and philosophically on the human condition. His former students include Francis Fukuyama, the author of the famous Post Cold War anthem The End of History and the Last Man (1992), and Fareed Zakaria, the former managing editor of Foreign Affairs and the current editor of Newsweek International. You aren’t likely to see Huntington on C-SPAN, let alone on The McLaughlin Group. He is a worse than indifferent public speaker: hunched over, reading laboriously from a text.

In fact, Mearsheimer is best known in the academy for his equally controversial views on China, and particularly for his 2001 magnum opus, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. Writing in Foreign Affairs in 2010, the Columbia University professor Richard K. Betts called Tragedy one of the three great works of the Post Cold War era, along with Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man (1992) and Huntington’s The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996). And, Betts suggested, “once China’s power is full grown,” Mearsheimer’s book may pull ahead of the other two in terms of influence. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics truly defines Mearsheimer, as it does realism.

Whatever the latest groupthink happens to be, Mearsheimer almost always instinctively wants to oppose it—especially if it emanates from Washington. The best grand theories tend to be written no earlier than middle age, when the writer has life experience and mistakes behind him to draw upon. Morgenthau’s 1948 classic, Politics Among Nations, was published when he was forty-four, Fukuyama’s The End of History was published as a book when he was forty, and Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations as a book when he was sixty-nine. Mearsheimer began writing The Tragedy of Great Power Politics when he was in his mid-forties, after working on it for a decade. Published just before 9/11, the book intimates the need for America to avoid strategic distractions and concentrate on confronting China.


pages: 263 words: 77,786

Tomorrow's Capitalist: My Search for the Soul of Business by Alan Murray

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, Boris Johnson, call centre, carbon footprint, commoditize, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, corporate social responsibility, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, decarbonisation, digital divide, disinformation, disruptive innovation, do well by doing good, don't be evil, Donald Trump, Ferguson, Missouri, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, future of work, gentrification, George Floyd, global pandemic, Greta Thunberg, gun show loophole, impact investing, income inequality, intangible asset, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, job automation, knowledge worker, lockdown, London Whale, low interest rates, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, means of production, minimum wage unemployment, natural language processing, new economy, old-boy network, price mechanism, profit maximization, remote working, risk-adjusted returns, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, scientific management, shareholder value, side hustle, Silicon Valley, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, The Future of Employment, the payments system, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Tim Cook: Apple, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, work culture , working poor, zero-sum game

One of the US cabinet secretaries asked him if he was considering a “third way” that blended capitalism and socialism. “There is no third way,” he responded without hesitation. “Capitalism has won.” Political scientist Francis Fukuyama went even further, writing a popular book called The End of History and the Last Man, in which he argued, “What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”6 To be sure, capitalism had earned its triumph.

New York Times, September 13, 1970. 3. Milton Friedman. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. 4. Adam Smith. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1776. 5. Friedman, “A Friedman Doctrine.” 6. Francis Fukuyama. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press, 1992. 7. “For Larry Summers, Milton Friedman Was a Devil Figure in His Youth.” Mostly Economics, August 17, 2010. 8. Ibid. 9. TBR: Statement on Corporate Governance, September 1997. https://cdn.the conversation.com/static_files/files/693/Statement_on_Corporate_Governance_Business -Roundtable-1997%281%29.pdf?


pages: 538 words: 141,822

The Net Delusion: The Dark Side of Internet Freedom by Evgeny Morozov

"World Economic Forum" Davos, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, Alvin Toffler, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Buckminster Fuller, Californian Ideology, Cass Sunstein, citizen journalism, cloud computing, cognitive dissonance, Columbine, computer age, conceptual framework, crowdsourcing, digital divide, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, don't be evil, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Google Earth, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, invention of radio, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, John von Neumann, lolcat, Marshall McLuhan, Mitch Kapor, Naomi Klein, Network effects, new economy, New Urbanism, off-the-grid, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, peer-to-peer, pirate software, pre–internet, Productivity paradox, public intellectual, RAND corporation, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Sinatra Doctrine, Skype, Slavoj Žižek, social graph, Steve Jobs, Streisand effect, technological determinism, technoutopianism, TED Talk, The Wisdom of Crowds, urban planning, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce

Technology, with its unique ability to fuel consumerist zeal—itself seen as a threat to any authoritarian regime—as well as its prowess to awaken and mobilize the masses against their rulers, was thought to be the ultimate liberator. There is a good reason why one of the chapters in Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and The Last Man, the ur-text of the early 1990s that successfully bridged the worlds of positive psychology and foreign affairs, was titled “The Victory of the VCR.” The ambiguity surrounding the end of the Cold War made such arguments look far more persuasive than any close examination of their theoretical strengths would warrant.

“The communist bloc failed,” it said in a timely published study, “not primarily or even fundamentally because of its centrally controlled economic policies or its excessive military burdens, but because its closed societies were too long denied the fruits of the information revolution.” This view has proved remarkably sticky. As late as 2002, Francis Fukuyama, himself a RAND Corporation alumnus, would write that “totalitarian rule depended on a regime’s ability to maintain a monopoly over information, and once modern information technology made that impossible, the regime’s power was undermined.” By 1995 true believers in the power of information to crush authoritarianism were treated to a book-length treatise.

Huxley feared that what we love will ruin us. This book is about the possibility that Huxley, not Orwell, was right,” is how Neil Postman chose to describe the theme of his best-selling Amusing Ourselves to Death. “[In contrast to Brave New World], the political predictions of ... 1984 were entirely wrong,” writes Francis Fukuyama in Our Posthuman Future. Maybe, but what many critics often fail to grasp is that both texts were written as sharp social critiques of contemporary problems rather than prophecies of the future. Orwell’s work was an attack on Stalinism and the stifling practices of the British censors, while Huxley’s was an attack on the then-popular philosophy of utilitarianism.


pages: 324 words: 80,217

The Decadent Society: How We Became the Victims of Our Own Success by Ross Douthat

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, AI winter, Apollo 13, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boeing 747, Burning Man, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, centre right, Charlie Hebdo massacre, charter city, crack epidemic, CRISPR, crowdsourcing, David Graeber, Deng Xiaoping, deplatforming, Donald Trump, driverless car, East Village, Easter island, Elon Musk, fake news, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, ghettoisation, gig economy, Golden age of television, green new deal, Haight Ashbury, helicopter parent, hive mind, Hyperloop, immigration reform, informal economy, intentional community, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Islamic Golden Age, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Joan Didion, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, life extension, low interest rates, mass immigration, mass incarceration, means of production, megacity, meritocracy, microaggression, move fast and break things, multiplanetary species, Neal Stephenson, Neil Armstrong, New Journalism, Nicholas Carr, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Oculus Rift, open borders, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, out of africa, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Paris climate accords, peak TV, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, pre–internet, private spaceflight, QAnon, quantitative easing, radical life extension, rent-seeking, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Ronald Reagan, secular stagnation, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Silicon Valley ideology, Snapchat, Snow Crash, Social Justice Warrior, social web, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, technoutopianism, TED Talk, the built environment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, wage slave, WeWork, women in the workforce, Y2K

The vital culture makes a bricolage of classic stories; the decadent culture remakes the bricolage with a slightly different cast and a few plot beats swapped around. The vital culture creates fans de novo; the decadent culture performs “fan service.” The vital culture is a workshop; the decadent culture is a museum. Can the End of History End? One important prophet of this museum culture was Francis Fukuyama, whose end-of-the-Cold-War magnum opus, The End of History and the Last Man, anticipated some of the tedium and repetition I’ve described. The “end” that Fukuyama discerned, contrary to many subsequent smug dismissals of his thesis, was not an ending of events—an end to wars or calamities or economic setbacks.

Since the 2008 financial crisis and the Great Recession exposed almost a decade’s worth of Western growth as an illusion, a diverse cast of economists and political scientists and other figures on both the left and the right have begun to talk about stagnation and repetition and complacency and sclerosis as defining features of this Western age: Tyler Cowen and Robert Gordon, Thomas Piketty and Francis Fukuyama, David Graeber and Peter Thiel, and many others. This book is, in part, an attempt to synthesize their various perspectives into a compelling account of our situation. But it also weaves the social sciences together with observations on our intellectual climate, our popular culture, our religious moment, our technological pastimes, in the hopes of painting a fuller portrait of our decadence than you can get just looking at political science papers on institutional decay or an economic analysis of the declining rate of growth.

In the posthistorical period, there will be neither art nor philosophy, just the perpetual caretaking of the museum of human history.” And then: “Perhaps this very prospect of centuries of boredom at the end of history will serve to get history started once again.” So even Fukuyama didn’t imagine that his “end” would be eternal—and as a provisional description of the post-1989 world, the landscape that I’m calling decadent, his “end of history” label is a reasonable fit. Certainly much of the intellectual repetition and frustration described in this chapter feels like frustration at being unable to imagine something new, to discern “clear lines of advance,” in Barzun’s phrase, to escape the political and moral and even theological limits imposed by late-modern liberalism, to reclaim some lost arcadia or reach boldly for heaven or utopia.


pages: 333 words: 86,628

The Virtue of Nationalism by Yoram Hazony

Berlin Wall, British Empire, conceptual framework, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, illegal immigration, invention of the printing press, Mahatma Gandhi, Peace of Westphalia, profit motive, Ronald Reagan, Steven Pinker, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Torches of Freedom, urban planning, Westphalian system

On both sides of the Atlantic, the unpleasant history of past European and American imperialism prevented most from speaking openly of empire. What was repeated endlessly by elected officials, diplomats, businessmen, and media personalities—as well as in a profusion of utopian political tracts, from Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man (1992), to Thomas Friedman’s The Lexus and the Olive Tree (1999), to Shimon Peres’s The New Middle East (1995)—was that the “international community” was being brought under “global governance.” The world would have a single regime of law and a single economic system, governed by Americans and Europeans in accordance with liberal political doctrines.

.… Like it or not, America today is Rome” (p. 244). As Tom Friedman put it, “The emerging global order needs an enforcer. That’s America’s new burden.” Thomas Friedman, “A Manifesto for a Fast World,” New York Times Magazine, March 28, 1999. See also Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Picador, 1999), 465–468; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992); and Shimon Peres, The New Middle East (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), among many other such works. 64. On the conservative (or “traditionalist”) school in English political theory, see Quinton, The Politics of Imperfection; J. G. A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987 ed.), esp. 30–55, 148–181; Harold J.

As a result, almost all public discussion of these efforts was conducted in a murky newspeak riddled with euphemisms such as “new world order,” “ever-closer union,” “openness,” “globalization,” “global governance,” “pooled sovereignty,” “rules-based order,” “universal jurisdiction,” “international community,” “liberal internationalism,” “transnationalism,” “American leadership,” “American century,” “unipolar world,” “indispensable nation,” “hegemon,” “subsidiarity,” “play by the rules,” “the right side of history,” “the end of history,” and so on.6 All of this endured for a generation—until finally the meaning of these phrases began to become clear to a broad public, with the results that we see before us. Whether the outpouring of nationalist sentiment in Britain and America will, in the end, be for the best, remains to be seen.


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The Autonomous Revolution: Reclaiming the Future We’ve Sold to Machines by William Davidow, Michael Malone

2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, agricultural Revolution, Airbnb, AlphaGo, American Society of Civil Engineers: Report Card, Automated Insights, autonomous vehicles, basic income, benefit corporation, bitcoin, blockchain, blue-collar work, Bob Noyce, business process, call centre, Cambridge Analytica, cashless society, citizen journalism, Clayton Christensen, collaborative consumption, collaborative economy, collective bargaining, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, deep learning, DeepMind, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, distributed ledger, en.wikipedia.org, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, Filter Bubble, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, Geoffrey West, Santa Fe Institute, gig economy, Gini coefficient, high-speed rail, holacracy, Hyperloop, income inequality, industrial robot, Internet of things, invention of agriculture, invention of movable type, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, license plate recognition, low interest rates, Lyft, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, Network effects, new economy, peer-to-peer lending, QWERTY keyboard, ransomware, Richard Florida, Robert Gordon, robo advisor, Ronald Reagan, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sharing economy, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Skinner box, Snapchat, speech recognition, streetcar suburb, Stuxnet, surveillance capitalism, synthetic biology, TaskRabbit, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, trade route, Turing test, two and twenty, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, uranium enrichment, urban planning, vertical integration, warehouse automation, zero day, zero-sum game, Zipcar

We can start by shutting off our phones at meals and sharing our beds with our partners rather than with texts and tweets. CHAPTER NINE THE BODY POLITIC Government in the Autonomous Revolution IN 1992, FRANCIS FUKUYAMA published his acclaimed book The End of History and the Last Man, which proclaimed that, with the fall of the USSR, government had completed its evolution. As he put it, civilization had arrived at “the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of liberal democracy as the final form of human government.”1 In the decades since, the rise of authoritarian regimes (roughly one nominally democratic country has reverted to tyranny every year for the last two decades) and the surge of right- and left-wing populism have cast a pall over Fukuyama’s optimistic vision.

Gazzaley and Rosen, The Distracted Mind, 129. 58. Gloria Mark et al., “The Task Left Behind? Examining the Nature of Fragmented Work,” University of California, Irvine, April 2005, http://www.ics.uci.edu/%7Egmark/CHI2005.pdf (accessed June 27, 2019). Chapter Nine THE BODY POLITIC 1. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, reissue ed. (New York: Free Press, 2006). 2. “Homestead Act,” History.com, https://www.history.com/topics/homestead-act (accessed June 27, 2019). 3. Julian M. Alston, Jennifer S. James, Matthew A. Andersen, Philip G. Pardey, “A Brief History of US Agriculture,” in Persistence Pays: U.S.

See also retail sector cybercrime and security, 132, 153–154 credit card, 74–76 cyber currencies, 78–80, 177–178 evolution of, 172–173 fake news classification as, 169–170 financial, 39–40, 75–76, 78–80, 171–172, 177–178 global effort needed for, 179 government response to, 172–176, 179 public utilities threat with, 173, 174 response rate relation to rate of, 171–172 Russia-based, 174 cyber currencies, 10, 83 blockchain technology of, 79, 80 electricity and miners involved with, 176 governance rules and systems, 176–178 government regulation needed for, 176–177 security with, 78–80, 177–178 as spatial equivalence, 16 cyber weapons, 16, 172–173, 174, 176 Daimler, Gottlieb, 53 Data and Goliath (Schneier), 127 Data Protection Directive, 129 data tracking/collection: advertising revenues’ role in, 89, 90, 120–123 algorithmic prisons with, 13, 114, 123–128 behavior manipulation in, 117, 121, 123 consumer protections against, 127–128 cookies’ role in, 89, 116, 117–118, 128 of credit rating agencies, 118–119 evolution and factors behind abuses of, 116–118 freemium business model role in, 121–123, 129–130 government agencies purchasing, 119, 131 information fiduciaries as protection for, 129–131 laws and regulations on, 128–130 liberty threats to and factors with, 13, 116–117, 123–128 privacy threat evolution with, 116–119 from social networking sites, 116, 118 transparency of, 127 Death and Life of Great American Cities, The (Jacobs), 109 Deep Blue, 46–47 delivery services, 102 democracy: authoritarianism threat to, 158–159 collective identity of citizens key to, 163, 166, 168 income inequality in relation to, 163–164 social media/networking threats to, 7, 18, 168–169 depression, 147–148, 166 Dichter, Ernest, 135 discrimination, 162–163, 165–166 displacement: business, 71, 72–73, 99 job, with job creation historically, 51–54, 106 job, without new job creation, 43, 51, 60–64, 98–99, 105–106 Distracted Minds (Gazzaley), 155 Echo, 119 economic policy and metrics: Depression-era, 67, 160 on monetizable productivity, 58–59 non-monetizable productivity in relation to, 52, 58–59, 66, 67, 68 unemployment rates in relation to, 106–107 “Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren” (Keynes), 187–189 economy: automation impacts on, 12–13 Autonomous, 60–61, 96–98 entrepreneurship, 110 gig, 7, 34, 63, 84, 85, 94 Second Economy contrasted with traditional, 97–98, 103 sharing, 70, 83–87, 100, 101–102 social empathy decline with decline of, 164–165 traditional compared to Autonomous, 96 elder care, 111 election tampering, 89, 167, 180, 186 electricity: cyber currency mining use of, 176 invention of, 29, 182 ELIZA, 46 Elsevier, Reed, 119 email, 60–61, 150 emotion detection technology, 115–116 empires, rise and fall of, 6–7, 24–25 End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama), 158 Enlightenment, xii, 2, 22, 152 entrepreneurship, rates of, 110 Epic of Gilgamesh, The, 24, 183–184, 185 Equifax, 75–76, 118, 126, 130 Estonia, 174 ethnicity. See race and ethnicity European Union, 14, 128–129 expertise, impairment with, 2–3 Facebook, 43, 65, 70 addictive design elements of, 144 BAADD practices of, 88, 90, 91 content governance policies of, 168 cyber currency under, 10 emotion detection technology, 115 employee to user ratio for, 86, 105 evolution unpredictability of, 180 freemium business model profiting, 122–123 narcissistic personality proliferation on, 146–147 revenue, 150 Snapchat competition with, 91 usage decline, 154 facial recognition, 116 fake news, 18, 150, 168, 169–170 farming, 25, 152, 159, 160.


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A Theory of the Drone by Gregoire Chamayou

drone strike, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeff Hawkins, junk bonds, military-industrial complex, moral hazard, Necker cube, operational security, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, private military company, RAND corporation, Seymour Hersh, telepresence, Yom Kippur War

The military drone is a low-cost weapon—at least in comparison to classic fighter planes. That has long been one of the principal selling points for such a weapon. But of course the contradiction lies in the fact that it is in the nature of such a weapon to proliferate. What does Francis Fukuyama do after the end of history? In his leisure hours, he puts together little drones in his garage and then proudly exhibits them on his blog.14 He is part of an rapidly developing subculture: that of the homemade drone. Following in the footsteps of the model enthusiasts of the 1960s, there today exists a whole little community of amateurs who buy or construct drones at the cost of a few hundred dollars.

To the principle of the nonexposure of lives at the scene of hostilities is added the principle of making the base of operations secure: “the US homeland must remain a secure base from which the Air Force can globally project power”—which means “ensuring the protection of US facilities and infrastructures used for power projection.” Steven M. Rinaldi, Donald H. Leathem, and Timothy Kaufman, “Protecting the Homeland Air Force: Roles in Homeland Security,” Aerospace Power Journal, Spring 2002, 83. 14. Francis Fukuyama, “Surveillance Drones, Take Two,” Democracy, Development, and the Rule of Law (blog), September 12, 2012, blogs.the-american-interest.com/fukuyama/2012/09/20/surveillance-drones-take-two. 15. See the Team BlackSheep video from November 30, 2010, on YouTube at www.youtube.com/watch?v=M9cSxEqKQ78 and the Team BlackSheep website at www.team-blacksheep.com. 16.


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Bobos in Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There by David Brooks

1960s counterculture, affirmative action, Community Supported Agriculture, David Brooks, Donald Trump, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Gilder, haute couture, haute cuisine, income inequality, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, Lewis Mumford, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, PalmPilot, place-making, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Bork, scientific management, Silicon Valley, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Thorstein Veblen, Upton Sinclair, upwardly mobile, urban planning, War on Poverty, Yogi Berra

Yale professor Paul Kennedy had a distinguished but unglamorous career under his belt when he wrote The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, predicting American decline. He was wrong, and hundreds of other commentators rose to say so, thus making him famous and turning his book into a bestseller. Francis Fukuyama wrote an essay called “The End of History,” which seemed wrong to people who read only the title. Thousands of essayists wrote pieces pointing out that history had not ended, and Fukuyama became a global sensation. After the article has appeared, the young intellectual will want to let the editor of the piece know what a massive impact the article is having at the White House/the Federal Reserve/the film industry or wherever its intended target is.

But even in more traditional circles, when one sees people return to religious participation, one often gets the sense that it is the participation they go for as much as the religion. The New York Times Magazine recently ran a special issue on religion that included the astute headline “Religion Makes a Comeback (Belief to Follow).” Francis Fukuyama nicely captured the ethos of Bobo religiosity in his 1999 book, The Great Disruption: Instead of community arising as a byproduct of rigid belief, people will return to religious belief because of their desire for community. In other words, people will return to religious tradition not necessarily because they accept the truth of revelation, but precisely because the absence of community and the transience of social ties in the secular world makes them hungry for ritual and cultural tradition.


pages: 486 words: 150,849

Evil Geniuses: The Unmaking of America: A Recent History by Kurt Andersen

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air traffic controllers' union, airline deregulation, airport security, Alan Greenspan, always be closing, American ideology, American Legislative Exchange Council, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-communist, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, artificial general intelligence, autonomous vehicles, basic income, Bear Stearns, Bernie Sanders, blue-collar work, Bonfire of the Vanities, bonus culture, Burning Man, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, Cass Sunstein, centre right, computer age, contact tracing, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, cotton gin, COVID-19, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, cryptocurrency, deep learning, DeepMind, deindustrialization, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, Elon Musk, ending welfare as we know it, Erik Brynjolfsson, feminist movement, financial deregulation, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Future Shock, game design, General Motors Futurama, George Floyd, George Gilder, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Herbert Marcuse, Herman Kahn, High speed trading, hive mind, income inequality, industrial robot, interchangeable parts, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, It's morning again in America, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, jitney, Joan Didion, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, Kevin Roose, knowledge worker, lockdown, low skilled workers, Lyft, Mark Zuckerberg, market bubble, mass immigration, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, Naomi Klein, new economy, Norbert Wiener, Norman Mailer, obamacare, Overton Window, Peter Thiel, Picturephone, plutocrats, post-industrial society, Powell Memorandum, pre–internet, public intellectual, Ralph Nader, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, Seaside, Florida, Second Machine Age, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, social distancing, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, stock buybacks, strikebreaker, tech billionaire, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Future of Employment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, universal basic income, Unsafe at Any Speed, urban planning, urban renewal, very high income, wage slave, Wall-E, War on Poverty, We are all Keynesians now, Whole Earth Catalog, winner-take-all economy, women in the workforce, working poor, young professional, éminence grise

As the millennium approached, invented-in-America political and economic freedom was triumphing globally and for good, because—in the words of an unknown Reagan State Department dweeb in 1989—we’d arrived at “the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” Francis Fukuyama turned his essay into a bestselling and enormously influential book, The End of History, in 1992. It was a moment of supreme self-satisfaction for America’s educated upper middle class in particular. One of their own, a Rhodes Scholar who’d graduated from Yale Law School, was about to be elected president. As the Harvard political philosophy professor (and baby boom Rhodes Scholar) Michael Sandel puts it, “Meritocracies…produce morally unattractive attitudes among those who make it to the top.

But that saying now has an alternative and nearly opposite meaning: the more that underlying structures change for real (technology, the political economy), the more the surfaces (style, entertainment) remain the same. In the early 1990s, Francis Fukuyama published his argument that all societies were inexorably arriving at the same evolutionary end point—the glorious finale of political economic history. Such folly. Yet in the arts and entertainment and style, what happened then, at the moment when both The End of History and the film Groundhog Day came out, does feel like an end of cultural history. Or at least, and I’m still hoping, an extremely long pause. So to recap: the national nostalgia reflex was triggered in the first place in the 1970s by fatigue from all the warp-drive cultural changes of the ’60s.

And the Supreme Court’s Citizens United decision in 2010, the conservative majority’s view that “there’s no such thing as spending too much money to support a political candidate, because your money is actually speech—that’s all nonsense,” but as a result, apart from passing a constitutional amendment, “there isn’t anything the government can do [about regulating campaign finance] now.” Then there’s the remarkable apostasy of the neoconservative political economist and Reagan administration official Francis Fukuyama. The End of History and its celebration of the permanent global triumph of U.S.-style capitalism in the 1990s got him an endowed public policy professorship at George Mason University, the Koch academic headquarters, and although he moved on to Stanford, he remains conservative in some ways. But when he was asked recently what he thought of the apparent new U.S. vogue for social democracy, even socialism, he said, “It all depends on what you mean by socialism,” and then he went off.


pages: 655 words: 156,367

The Rise and Fall of the Neoliberal Order: America and the World in the Free Market Era by Gary Gerstle

2021 United States Capitol attack, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air traffic controllers' union, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, anti-communist, AOL-Time Warner, Bear Stearns, behavioural economics, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, blue-collar work, borderless world, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Broken windows theory, business cycle, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, collective bargaining, Cornelius Vanderbilt, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, crony capitalism, cuban missile crisis, David Brooks, David Graeber, death from overwork, defund the police, deindustrialization, democratizing finance, Deng Xiaoping, desegregation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test, European colonialism, Ferguson, Missouri, financial deregulation, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, future of work, Future Shock, George Floyd, George Gilder, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global supply chain, green new deal, Greenspan put, guns versus butter model, Haight Ashbury, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, Ida Tarbell, immigration reform, informal economy, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Jeff Bezos, John Perry Barlow, Kevin Kelly, Kitchen Debate, low interest rates, Lyft, manufacturing employment, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass incarceration, Menlo Park, microaggression, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, millennium bug, Modern Monetary Theory, money market fund, Mont Pelerin Society, mortgage debt, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, neoliberal agenda, new economy, New Journalism, Northern Rock, obamacare, Occupy movement, oil shock, open borders, Peter Thiel, Philip Mirowski, Powell Memorandum, precariat, price stability, public intellectual, Ralph Nader, Robert Bork, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Seymour Hersh, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, social distancing, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, Strategic Defense Initiative, super pumped, technoutopianism, Telecommunications Act of 1996, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Chicago School, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, urban decay, urban renewal, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, We are all Keynesians now, We are the 99%, white flight, Whole Earth Catalog, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce, Works Progress Administration, Y2K, Yom Kippur War

Hacker, The Great Risk Shift: The New Economic Insecurity and the Decline of the American Dream (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Godfrey Hodgson, More Equal than Others; Steve Fraser, The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power (New York: Little, Brown, 2015), chapter 12. 17.Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). This was an outgrowth of Fukuyama’s essay “The End of History?” published in National Interest 16 (Summer 1989), 3–18. 18.On decline of social democracy in Europe, see Tony Judt, Ill Fares the Land (New York: Penguin Books, 2010) and Judt, Postwar; Sheri Berman, The Primacy of Politics: Social Democracy and the Making of Europe’s Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006); James T.

Moreover, many jobs had become much less secure than they had once been, with the portion of households suffering an income decline of 25 percent or more a year from job losses rising steadily across the decade.16 The decline of labor was not just evident in shrinking union membership rolls, erosion of political power, and increasing economic inequality. It was also evident in a decline in the very ability to imagine organizing a world on something other than capitalist principles. This was the point powerfully made by the social theorist and philosopher Francis Fukuyama in The End of History and the Last Man, the bestselling book he published in 1992. A fierce critic of communism, Fukuyama nevertheless respected the radicalism of communism’s critique of liberal democracy (the political system most conducive, Fukuyama argued, to capitalism’s flourishing) and the passions that it had long elicited among its supporters.

Louis and the Violent History of the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2020). 52.Others in this group included the literary critic Allan Bloom; William J. Bennett, Reagan’s secretary of education; editor of Commentary magazine Norman Podhoretz; senator from New York Daniel Patrick Moynihan; and social theorist Francis Fukuyama. Social scientists Daniel Bell and Nathan Glazer hovered around its fringes, as did the historian and social critic Christopher Lasch. They were often grouped under the label “neoconservative.” For a sampling of their writing, see Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976); Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations (New York: W.


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The Dawn of Eurasia: On the Trail of the New World Order by Bruno Macaes

active measures, Berlin Wall, Brexit referendum, British Empire, computer vision, deep learning, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, digital map, Donald Trump, energy security, European colonialism, eurozone crisis, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, geopolitical risk, global value chain, illegal immigration, intermodal, iterative process, land reform, liberal world order, Malacca Straits, mass immigration, megacity, middle-income trap, open borders, Parag Khanna, savings glut, scientific worldview, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, speech recognition, Suez canal 1869, The Brussels Effect, trade liberalization, trade route, Transnistria, young professional, zero-sum game, éminence grise

Ironically, this would be the most despicable state of human history, when no further movement can be conceived, let alone attempted, when men and women entertain themselves to death in the belief that they have, at long last, discovered happiness. ‘One still works, but work is a pastime.’ Politics has disappeared: ‘Who still wants to rule? Who still wants to obey? Both are too burdensome.’ Mankind lives at the end of history when everything is as perfect as it can be and the whole past looks like a madhouse: ‘Formerly all the world was insane.’ In his extraordinarily popular book The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama defended the argument that the desire to live in a modern society is universal and that a modern society assumes everywhere the form of a market economy and a democratic political system.

Contemporary art had taught them that there is always a different way of seeing. Art must foresee other pictures, other worlds. Western modernity is for them just another form of tradition to be uprooted and overcome. When discussing world politics today, we often revert to one of two models. The first, popularized by Francis Fukuyama, sees the whole world converging to a European or Western political framework, after which no further historical development is possible. Every country or region is measured by the time it will still take to reach this final destination, but all doubts and debates about where we are heading have been fundamentally resolved.

The view of Asian society was of a society that was backward, that had remained static since antiquity and that, left to itself, would always remain static. As Hegel was to argue, Europe was the end and destination of historical change, Asia the beginning. ‘The history of the world travels from East to West, for Europe is absolutely the end of history, Asia the beginning.’12 With China history begins, for it is the oldest empire and also, as Hegel puts it, the newest; a place where change is excluded ‘and the fixedness of a character which recurs perpetually takes the place of what we should call the truly historical’.13 As the contemporary Chinese political philosopher Wang Hui writes, this division had a number of distinctive traits: Asian political empires as opposed to European nations; agrarian and nomad social types in contrast to European urban societies; political despotism against developed legal systems and the pursuit of individual freedom.


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The Wealth of Humans: Work, Power, and Status in the Twenty-First Century by Ryan Avent

3D printing, Airbnb, American energy revolution, assortative mating, autonomous vehicles, Bakken shale, barriers to entry, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, BRICs, business cycle, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, collective bargaining, computer age, creative destruction, currency risk, dark matter, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, disruptive innovation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Downton Abbey, driverless car, Edward Glaeser, Erik Brynjolfsson, eurozone crisis, everywhere but in the productivity statistics, falling living standards, financial engineering, first square of the chessboard, first square of the chessboard / second half of the chessboard, Ford paid five dollars a day, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, general purpose technology, gig economy, global supply chain, global value chain, heat death of the universe, hydraulic fracturing, income inequality, independent contractor, indoor plumbing, industrial robot, intangible asset, interchangeable parts, Internet of things, inventory management, invisible hand, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, knowledge economy, low interest rates, low skilled workers, lump of labour, Lyft, machine translation, manufacturing employment, Marc Andreessen, mass immigration, means of production, new economy, performance metric, pets.com, post-work, price mechanism, quantitative easing, Ray Kurzweil, rent-seeking, reshoring, rising living standards, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, savings glut, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, self-driving car, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, single-payer health, software is eating the world, supply-chain management, supply-chain management software, tacit knowledge, TaskRabbit, tech billionaire, The Future of Employment, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade liberalization, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber and Lyft, Uber for X, uber lyft, very high income, warehouse robotics, working-age population

Such a story had not, to my knowledge, been told at the time of writing.   6. ‘The Gifts of the Moguls’, The Economist, 4 July 2015. 11. The Politics of Labour Abundance   1. Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (1952–) is an American political scientist, political economist and author, known for his book The End of History and the Last Man (New York, NY: Free Press, 1992), which expanded on his 1989 essay, ‘The End of History’.   2. Schleicher, David, ‘Things Aren’t Going That Well Over There Either: Party Polarization and Election Law in Comparative Perspective’, University of Chicago Legal Forum, 18 November 2014.   3. 

The period began, in the 1970s and 1980s, with a liberalizing impulse across a broad range of countries, from Britain and America to China and India. While Thatcher and Reagan cut tax rates and squashed unions, Deng Xiaopeng trod cautiously towards limited tolerance of markets and foreign trade. The era of consensus continued with the collapse of communism in Russia and Eastern Europe, which prompted Francis Fukuyama to muse that ‘the end of history’ had arrived with the global ascendance of liberal democracy.1 As global markets integrated, politics in most rich democracies coalesced around support for market-oriented economies, global openness and progressive social goals. It was a pleasant sort of era for the cosmopolitan, technocratic elite: the believers in the notion that markets, lightly tended, offered the best route to global prosperity and peace.

., The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014) Ford, Martin, The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future (Createspace, 2009) _____, Rise of the Robots: Technology and the Threat of a Jobless Future (London: Oneworld Publications, 2015) Friedman, Milton, and Schwartz, Anna, A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963) Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man (The Free Press, 1992) Glaeser, Edward, Triumph of the City: How Our Greatest Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier (London: Macmillan, 2011) Goldin, Claudia and Katz, Lawrence, The Race Between Education and Technology (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008) Gordon, Robert, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S.


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The Revolt of the Public and the Crisis of Authority in the New Millennium by Martin Gurri

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Arthur Eddington, Ayatollah Khomeini, bitcoin, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, Black Swan, Burning Man, business cycle, citizen journalism, Climategate, Climatic Research Unit, collective bargaining, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, currency manipulation / currency intervention, dark matter, David Graeber, death of newspapers, disinformation, Eddington experiment, en.wikipedia.org, Erik Brynjolfsson, facts on the ground, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, Great Leap Forward, housing crisis, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of writing, job-hopping, military-industrial complex, Mohammed Bouazizi, Nate Silver, Occupy movement, Port of Oakland, Republic of Letters, Ronald Reagan, scientific management, Skype, Steve Jobs, the scientific method, The Signal and the Noise by Nate Silver, too big to fail, traveling salesman, University of East Anglia, urban renewal, War on Poverty, We are the 99%, WikiLeaks, Yochai Benkler, young professional

With the fall of communism and implosion of the Soviet Union in 1991, no alternative system was left to oppose the democracies. They had triumphed with a completeness rarely seen in history. As early as 1989, Francis Fukuyama, in his famous essay “The End of History?”, could speculate about a world wholly dominated by the democratic ideology: What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, of the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the endpoint of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. This is not to say that there will no longer be events to fill the pages of Foreign Affairs’ yearly summaries of international relations, for the victory of liberalism has occurred primarily in the realm of ideas or consciousness and is as yet incomplete in the real or material world.

[265] Robert Mackey, “For Egypt’s Rulers, Familiar Scapegoats,” New York Times, November 29, 2014, http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/11/29/for-egypts-new-rulers-familiar-scapegoats/. [266] Patrick Kingsley, “I’m no traitor, says Wael Ghonim as Egypt regime targets secular activists,” The Guardian, January 9, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/09/wael-ghonim-egypt-regime-targets-secular-activists. [267] Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest, Summer 1989, http://www.kropfpolisci.com/exceptionalism.fukuyama.pdf. [268] Angelique Chrisafis, “François Hollande becomes most unpopular French president ever,” The Guardian, October 29, 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/oct/29/francois-hollande-most-unpopular-president

But there are powerful reasons for believing that it is the ideal that will govern the material world in the long run.[267] Following the horrors of 9/11, Fukuyama and his ideas were derided as triumphalist nonsense. But he was only half wrong. Fukuyama, a Hegelian, argued that Western democracy had run out of “contradictions”: that is, of ideological alternatives. That was true in 1989 and remains true today. Fukuyama’s mistake was to infer that the absence of contradictions meant the end of history. There was another possibility he failed to consider. History could well be driven by negation rather than contradiction. It could ride on the nihilistic rejection of the established order, regardless of alternatives or consequences. That would not be without precedent. The Roman Empire wasn’t overthrown by something called “feudalism” – it collapsed of its own dead weight, to the astonishment of friend and foe alike.


The Despot's Accomplice: How the West Is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy by Brian Klaas

Asian financial crisis, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, citizen journalism, clean water, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, failed state, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, global pandemic, Great Leap Forward, moral hazard, Ronald Reagan, selection bias, Seymour Hersh, Skype, Steve Jobs, trade route, Transnistria, Twitter Arab Spring, unemployed young men, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

Even with heroic efforts to the contrary, digital information flows are difficult to stop— and knowledge and social coordination can be extremely powerful when it comes to standing up to despots. â•… But the corresponding backlash by authoritarian rulers, who also have learned a thing or two about digital communication, is undermining naïve predictions made across the Western world in the wake of the Arab Spring. Everyone seemed to think that it was only a matter of time before Twitter revolutions began toppling despots left and right. It was a return to the notion, initially articulated by Francis Fukuyama, that we had reached the democratic endpoint, the “End of History”4—but this time the end would be announced in 140 characters or fewer. There was even a movement to nominate Twitter for the Nobel Peace Prize.5 Yet as the grip of authoritarianism has tightened rather than loosened in the last decade, it has become clear that reports of despotism’s death at the hands of Twitter and Facebook have been greatly exaggerated. â•… Social media, information technology, and digital communication are incredibly powerful tools that scare despots—and rightly so.

When it does not, it should fall by the wayside, as other overriding interests are deemed more important. This is the current approach. It has led us to a prolonged period of democratic stagnation and decline, giving despots the upper hand. Twenty-five years ago, Francis Fukuyama mistakenly argued that the world was nearing “The End of History,” wherein democracy would ultimately supplant despotism everywhere as the ideological dominance of democracy became uncontested. Instead, because of the West’s halfhearted approach to democracy promotion, despots have a growing number of defenders, and the West is far too often on the wrong side of “history.” â•… There is a third way forward: promote democracy consistently and more intelligently.

‘Director Peter Jackson Wades into Turkish Debate over “Evil” Gollum’, The Telegraph, 3 December 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/ 12030987/Lord-of-the-Rigns-director-Peter-Jackson-wades-into-RecepTayyip-Erdogan-Gollum-debate.html, last accessed 3 April 2016. 4.╇Fukuyama, Francis (1992). The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press. 5.╇Khan, Urmee (2009). ‘Twitter Should Win Nobel Peace Prize, Says Former US Security Adviser,’ The Telegraph, 7 July 2009, http://www. telegraph.co.uk/technology/twitter/5768159/Twitter-should-winNobel-Peace-Prize-says-former-US-security-adviser.html, last accessed 3 April 2016. 6.╇Dobson, William J. (2012).


pages: 463 words: 105,197

Radical Markets: Uprooting Capitalism and Democracy for a Just Society by Eric Posner, E. Weyl

3D printing, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Airbnb, Amazon Mechanical Turk, anti-communist, augmented reality, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Branko Milanovic, business process, buy and hold, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, collective bargaining, commoditize, congestion pricing, Corn Laws, corporate governance, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, data science, deep learning, DeepMind, Donald Trump, Elon Musk, endowment effect, Erik Brynjolfsson, Ethereum, feminist movement, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gamification, Garrett Hardin, George Akerlof, global macro, global supply chain, guest worker program, hydraulic fracturing, Hyperloop, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, income per capita, index fund, informal economy, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jean Tirole, Jeremy Corbyn, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, Landlord’s Game, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, market bubble, market design, market friction, market fundamentalism, mass immigration, negative equity, Network effects, obamacare, offshore financial centre, open borders, Pareto efficiency, passive investing, patent troll, Paul Samuelson, performance metric, plutocrats, pre–internet, radical decentralization, random walk, randomized controlled trial, Ray Kurzweil, recommendation engine, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, ride hailing / ride sharing, risk tolerance, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Ronald Coase, Rory Sutherland, search costs, Second Machine Age, second-price auction, self-driving car, shareholder value, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Skype, special economic zone, spectrum auction, speech recognition, statistical model, stem cell, telepresence, Thales and the olive presses, Thales of Miletus, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Future of Employment, The Market for Lemons, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, urban planning, Vanguard fund, vertical integration, women in the workforce, Zipcar

Glen Weyl, Surge Pricing Solves the Wild Goose Chase (2017), https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/ECabstract.pdf. 3. Janny Scott, After Three Days in the Spotlight, Nobel Prize Winner Is Dead, New York Times, October 12, 1996. Introduction. The Crisis of the Liberal Order 1. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, 1992). 2. Marion Fourcade-Gourinchas & Sarah L. Babb, The Rebirth of the Liberal Creed: Paths to Neoliberalism in Four Countries, 108 American Journal of Sociology 533 (2002); Fourcade et al., The Superiority of Economists, 29 Journal of Economic Perspectives 89 (2015). 3.

Saumitra Jha, Financial Asset Holdings and Political Attitudes: Evidence from Revolutionary England, 130 Quarterly Journal of Economics 1485 (2015); Markku Kaustia, Samuli Knüpfer, & Sami Torstila, Stock Ownership and Political Behavior: Evidence from Demutualizations, 62 Management Science 945 (2015). 71. Francis Fukuyama, Trust (Free Press, 1995); Paola Sapienza, Anna Toldra-Simats, & Luigi Zingales, Understanding Trust, 123 Economic Journal 1313 (2013). Chapter 2. Radical Democracy 1. Mogens Herman Hansen, The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles, and Ideology 6 (J. A. Crook, trans., Basil Blackwell, 1999). 2.

—JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES, THE GENERAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT, INTEREST, AND MONEY, 1936 The Berlin Wall fell when one of us was just starting preschool and the other was beginning his career, that moment was crucial in shaping our political identities. The “American way”—free markets, popular sovereignty, and global integration—had vanquished the Soviet “evil empire.” Since then those values—which we will call the liberal order—have dominated intellectual discussions. Leading thinkers declared “the end of history.” The great social problems that had so long been the center of political drama had been solved.1 Both of us came of age intellectually in an unprecedented era of global intellectual consensus, confidence, and complacency. Nowhere was this atmosphere clearer than in the policy world in which we each ended up—one of us in law, the other in economics.


pages: 370 words: 99,312

Can Democracy Work?: A Short History of a Radical Idea, From Ancient Athens to Our World by James Miller

Berlin Wall, Black Lives Matter, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, classic study, colonial rule, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Graeber, disinformation, Donald Trump, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, Joseph Schumpeter, mass incarceration, means of production, Occupy movement, Plato's cave, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Republic of Letters, Steve Bannon, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, The Wisdom of Crowds, transatlantic slave trade, union organizing, upwardly mobile, Vilfredo Pareto

Yet with twists and turns, and despite some spectacular setbacks, the “great democratic revolution” that Tocqueville described indeed continued, sometimes flaring up with disturbing results, throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. Tocqueville was one of the first in a long line of modern writers who have believed that democracy in some sense represented a logical culmination of human affairs: for Francis Fukuyama, writing in 1989, the year that jubilant Germans tore down the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy marked “the end of history,” with an American exclamation point. But history hasn’t evolved in quite the way that these theorists anticipated. Tocqueville expected democracy to produce greater equality—yet democratic states conjoined with market societies have recurrently produced growing inequality.

Although Huntington briefly worked for Brzezinski when his old friend became national security adviser for the Democratic president Jimmy Carter in the late 1970s, he mainly focused his energies on teaching undergraduates at Harvard—and on episodically commenting in books and articles on the main currents of history as he perceived them. When the Soviet Union unexpectedly collapsed in 1989, and a renewed democratic spirit afterward led to mainly peaceful transitions to liberal democratic regimes in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, Huntington saw no cause to celebrate. Where his student Francis Fukuyama perceived the apparent triumph of liberal democracy as the logical climax of world history, Huntington discerned the ascendance of new centers of political power in China and the Islamic world, both representing mature civilizations of great antiquity—and both offering religious and authoritarian alternatives to Western liberal ideals of human rights and representative democracy.

Lawrence Krader (Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum, 1974). “to answer Sir Henry Maine’s ‘Popular Government’”: Woodrow Wilson to Horace Elisha Scudder, May [12], 1886, in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 5:218. “Democracy in Europe,” he explains: Ibid., 5:69–70. In effect, Wilson puts America at the end of history, as Hegel put Prussia in his Philosophy of Right, and Marx put communism in his Manifesto. “It had not to overthrow other polities”: Wilson, “The Modern Democratic State,” Ibid., 5:67. Democracy “in its most modern sense”: Wilson, “The Modern Democratic State,” in The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 5:70.


pages: 393 words: 91,257

The Coming of Neo-Feudalism: A Warning to the Global Middle Class by Joel Kotkin

"RICO laws" OR "Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations", "World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, Alvin Toffler, Andy Kessler, autonomous vehicles, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bread and circuses, Brexit referendum, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon credits, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, clean water, company town, content marketing, Cornelius Vanderbilt, creative destruction, data science, deindustrialization, demographic transition, deplatforming, don't be evil, Donald Trump, driverless car, edge city, Elon Musk, European colonialism, Evgeny Morozov, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Future Shock, gentrification, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Google bus, Great Leap Forward, green new deal, guest worker program, Hans Rosling, Herbert Marcuse, housing crisis, income inequality, informal economy, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, job automation, job polarisation, job satisfaction, Joseph Schumpeter, land reform, liberal capitalism, life extension, low skilled workers, Lyft, Marc Benioff, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, megacity, Michael Shellenberger, Nate Silver, new economy, New Urbanism, Northpointe / Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions, Occupy movement, Parag Khanna, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, post-industrial society, post-work, postindustrial economy, postnationalism / post nation state, precariat, profit motive, public intellectual, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, rent control, Richard Florida, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Salesforce, Sam Altman, San Francisco homelessness, Satyajit Das, sharing economy, Sidewalk Labs, Silicon Valley, smart cities, Social Justice Warrior, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, superstar cities, technological determinism, Ted Nordhaus, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The future is already here, The Future of Employment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, trade route, Travis Kalanick, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, unpaid internship, upwardly mobile, Virgin Galactic, We are the 99%, Wolfgang Streeck, women in the workforce, work culture , working-age population, Y Combinator

Essays on a Failing System (New York: Verso, 2016), 219. 30 Phil Longman, The Empty Cradle: How Falling Birthrates Threaten World Prosperity (New York: New America Books, 2004); Joel Kotkin, “Death Spiral Demographics: The Countries Shrinking the Fastest,” Forbes, February 1, 2017, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joelkotkin/2017/02/01/death-spiral-demographics-the-countries-shrinking-the-fastest/#4ae48b38b83c. 31 Alex Gray, “The troubling charts that show young people losing faith in democracy,” World Economic Forum, December 1, 2016, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/12/charts-that-show-young-people-losing-faith-in-democracy/. 32 Amanda Taub, “How Stable Are Democracies? ‘Warning Signs Are Flashing Red,’” New York Times, November 29, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/29/world/americas/western-liberal-democracy.html?_r=0. 33 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992), 12. 34 Emily Atkin, “Al Gore’s Carbon Footprint Doesn’t Matter,” New Republic, August 7, 2017, https://newrepublic.com/article/144199/al-gores-carbon-footprint-doesnt-matter; “How Electricity Became a Luxury Good,” Spiegel, September 4, 2013, http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/high-costs-and-errors-of-german-transition-to-renewable-energy-a-920288-2.html; Dagmara Stoerring, “Energy Poverty,” European Parliament, November 9, 2016, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/607350/IPOL_STU(2017)607350_EN.pdf. 35 Salena Zito and Brad Todd, The Great Revolt: Inside the Populist Coalition Reshaping American Politics (New York: Crown Forum, 2018), 3, 246. 36 Guilluy, Twilight of the Elites, 15; Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry, “The Failure of the French Elite,” Wall Street Journal, February 22, 2019, https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-failure-of-the-french-elite-11550851097?

A strong supporter of the Beijing regime’s current climate policies, Brown even recommends the “brainwashing” of the uncomprehending masses, a concept very much congruent with the logic behind Chinese thought control.48 CHAPTER 21 Can We Challenge Neo-feudalism? The hope that we might see a global convergence toward democracy, as was once predicted by Francis Fukuyama and Thomas Friedman among others, seems increasingly remote. As China has grown both richer and more powerful, it has not become more like us, but instead has developed an authoritarian form of state capitalism.1 Globally, democratic governance appears to have peaked in 2006, and many countries—including Turkey, Russia, and China—have become far more authoritarian.


pages: 93 words: 30,572

How to Stop Brexit (And Make Britain Great Again) by Nick Clegg

Berlin Wall, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Jeremy Corbyn, low interest rates, offshore financial centre, sceptred isle, Snapchat, Steve Bannon

The reasons behind the recent run of election results require extensive analysis, but it is clear that the shock of Brexit, followed by Trump’s victory, inspired liberal-minded, internationalist, pro-European politicians to come out of their shells and make their arguments with renewed passion. They can no longer close their eyes and pretend there is no populist threat. They can no longer assume that we have reached, as the political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously stated, the end of history. Instead they have had to take their message to voters – many of whom are unhappy with the status quo – with fresh arguments and a promise to listen and reform. Europe has been shocked into action and is determined to … well, make Europe great again. The Times is often credited with a headline that, sadly, never actually appeared.


pages: 356 words: 106,161

The Glass Half-Empty: Debunking the Myth of Progress in the Twenty-First Century by Rodrigo Aguilera

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Alan Greenspan, Anthropocene, availability heuristic, barriers to entry, basic income, benefit corporation, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, Boris Johnson, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, capitalist realism, carbon footprint, Carmen Reinhart, centre right, clean water, cognitive bias, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Colonization of Mars, computer age, Corn Laws, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, David Graeber, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, death from overwork, decarbonisation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, don't be evil, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, Dunning–Kruger effect, Elon Musk, European colonialism, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, fundamental attribution error, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, green new deal, Hans Rosling, housing crisis, income inequality, income per capita, index fund, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, Jeremy Corbyn, Jevons paradox, job automation, job satisfaction, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, karōshi / gwarosa / guolaosi, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, lake wobegon effect, land value tax, Landlord’s Game, late capitalism, liberal capitalism, long peace, loss aversion, low interest rates, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, means of production, meta-analysis, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, moral panic, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Overton Window, Pareto efficiency, passive investing, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, principal–agent problem, profit motive, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, rent-seeking, risk tolerance, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, savings glut, Scientific racism, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Slavoj Žižek, Social Justice Warrior, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, sovereign wealth fund, Stanislav Petrov, Steven Pinker, structural adjustment programs, surveillance capitalism, tail risk, tech bro, TED Talk, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, transatlantic slave trade, trolley problem, unbiased observer, universal basic income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, Y2K, young professional, zero-sum game

But it made a comeback after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the swift implosion of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc over the next two years. Nothing exemplified the supreme victory of Western ideals in almost all spheres of life better than US political scientist Francis Fukuyama’s seminal 1989 essay “The End of History”, best known for its bold forecast about the future of humanity: What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such … That is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.5 It is certainly true that doomsday predictions like Malthusian overpopulation and Y2K have a terrible track record.

There is little scope for naivety or pessimism — the movement largely discounts the tremendously complex issues that could arise from such selective augmentation of our natural capabilities, whereas critics understandably find the possibilities terrifying. Notably, transhumanism was listed as one of the world’s eight “most dangerous ideas” in a 2004 special report by Foreign Policy magazine. Perhaps surprisingly, the author of the scathing piece was Francis Fukuyama who took particular issue with its disregard for what the existence of a superior class of human being would mean in terms of citizenship and equality in democratic societies: If we start transforming ourselves into something superior, what rights will these enhanced creatures claim, and what rights will they possess when compared to those left behind?

Printed and bound in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd CONTENTS Introduction: A New Secular Religion Part I: Optimism and Its Discontents Chapter One: Mad World Chapter Two: Getting Better Chapter Three: Twenty-First Century Breakdown Part II: Progress and the Crisis of Liberalism Chapter Four: Masters of Puppets Chapter Five: The Big Money Chapter Six: And Justice for All Part III: The End of the End of History Chapter Seven: The Evil That Men Do Chapter Eight: Renegades of Thought Chapter Nine: Built for the Future Epilogue: Winds of Change A Note on Data Sources Notes Acknowledgements To my mother and aunt “We don’t throw virgins into volcanoes anymore.” — Steven Pinker INTRO: A NEW SECULAR RELIGION A Necessary Inquiry If one could think of the worst possible year to write a book that was critical of human progress, that year would be 1991. This was year zero of the “end of history”, when the collapse of the Soviet Union removed the last challenge to the dominance of Western liberal democracy and capitalism.


pages: 268 words: 112,708

Culture works: the political economy of culture by Richard Maxwell

1960s counterculture, accelerated depreciation, American ideology, AOL-Time Warner, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, big-box store, business process, commoditize, corporate governance, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, digital capitalism, digital divide, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Howard Rheingold, income inequality, informal economy, intermodal, late capitalism, Marshall McLuhan, medical malpractice, Neil Armstrong, Network effects, post-Fordism, profit maximization, Ralph Nader, refrigerator car, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, streetcar suburb, structural adjustment programs, talking drums, telemarketer, the built environment, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, Thorstein Veblen, Unsafe at Any Speed, urban renewal, vertical integration, Victor Gruen, Whole Earth Catalog, women in the workforce, work culture

“The ratings were so high that NBC will take the same tack into Sydney and beyond.”143 Coda In corporate/Americanized sport, the game has become somewhat less important than its capacity to be a vehicle presenting particular messages to a particular select and often massive audience.144 This discussion may have unearthed some disheartening revelations pertaining to the political economy of contemporary sport culture. Elsewhere I have argued that sport has, in Francis Fukuyama’s terms, reached the end of history precipitated by the “total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives”145 to the sport-media-entertainment complex discussed here.146 On reflection, this sentiment intimates a resigned bitterness that adds little to the critical analysis of contemporary sport. Without question, the global sport economy is dominated by brazenly commercial enterprises that make no pretense as to the cardinal importance of delivering entertaining products designed to maximize profit margins.

Mica Nava, Andrew Blake, Iain MacRury, and Barry Richards (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 87–102. 161 David L. A n d r e w s 142. Gunther, “Get Ready for the Oprah Olympics,” 42. 143. Knisley, “Rock Solid,” S6. 144. P. Donnelly, “The Local and the Global: Globalization in the Sociology of Sport,” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 20:3 (1996): 246. 145. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest 16 (1989): 3. 146. Andrews, “Dead and Alive?” 147. L. Grossberg, We Gotta Get out of This Place: Popular Conservatism and Postmodern Culture (London: Routledge, 1992), 21. 162 Chapter Seven Shopping Susan G. Davis The opportunity and imperative to shop are everywhere.

., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990). Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, 25th ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1998), 279. T. Miller and A. McHoul, Popular Culture and Everyday Life (London: Sage, 1998), 61. S. Hardy, “Where Did You Go, Jackie Robinson? Or the End of History and the Age of Sport Infrastructure,” Sporting Traditions: Journal of the Australian Society for Sports History 16:1 (1999): 85–100. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991), 48. This apt metaphor is borrowed from Jürgen Habermas, “Conservatism and Capitalist Crisis,” New Left Review 115 (1979): 73–84.


Capitalism, Alone: The Future of the System That Rules the World by Branko Milanovic

affirmative action, Asian financial crisis, assortative mating, barriers to entry, basic income, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, Black Swan, Branko Milanovic, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carried interest, colonial rule, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of the americas, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, ghettoisation, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, global value chain, Great Leap Forward, high net worth, household responsibility system, income inequality, income per capita, invention of the wheel, invisible hand, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, Joseph Schumpeter, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, land reform, liberal capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, means of production, new economy, offshore financial centre, Paul Samuelson, plutocrats, post-materialism, purchasing power parity, remote working, rent-seeking, ride hailing / ride sharing, Robert Solow, Silicon Valley, single-payer health, special economic zone, Tax Reform Act of 1986, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, uber lyft, universal basic income, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, working-age population, Xiaogang Anhui farmers

It would seem absurd to Marxists, as well as to pretty much everyone else, that such a development could happen. But the “fall” of communism back to capitalism is equally absurd, and cannot be explained within the traditional Marxist framework. It can be explained better, albeit not fully, within the liberal framework. In the liberal view, which Francis Fukuyama captured quite well in the 1990s with The End of History and the Last Man, liberal democracy and laissez-faire capitalism represent the terminus of socioeconomic formations invented by humankind. What Marxists see as an incomprehensible reversal to a much lower (inferior) system, liberals see as a perfectly understandable movement from an inferior, dead-end system (communism) back onto the straight path leading to the end point of human evolution: liberal capitalism.

Debin Ma reprises a similar theme in his paper on the fiscal capacity of the Chinese state: “In China, the precocious rise of absolutism [centralized state based on hierarchically organized bureaucracy] with the absence of any representative institution ensured that the economic rents from the control of violence were firmly in the hands of political interest divorced from those of commercial and property interest” (2011, 26–27). It was surely not a government at the behest of the bourgeoisie. Francis Fukuyama, in The Origins of Political Order (2011), explains the absence of a countervailing merchant class in China by the omnipotence of the state, which goes back to the formation of the Chinese state. Fukuyama argues that China was ahead of every other major power in building the state; it did so also before any other organized nonstate actors (independent bourgeoisie, free cities, clergy) were created.

Washington, DC: Peterson Institute for International Economics. Freund, Caroline, and Sarah Oliver. 2016. “The Origins of the Superrich: The Billionaire Characteristics Database.” PIIE Working Paper 16-1, Peterson Institute for International Economics, February. https://piie.com/system/files/documents/wp16-1.pdf. Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press. Fukuyama, Francis. 2011. The Origins of Political Order. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Gabriel, Satyananda J. 2006. Chinese Capitalism and the Modernist Vision. London: Routledge. Gernet, Jacques. 1962. Daily Life in China on the Eve of Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276.


The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union by Serhii Plokhy

affirmative action, Anton Chekhov, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, Boeing 747, cuban missile crisis, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, land reform, language acquisition, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Potemkin village, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Sinatra Doctrine, Stanislav Petrov, Strategic Defense Initiative, Transnistria

Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia, trans. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New York, 1994), 116; Gorbachev, Memoirs, 658; interview with Valentin Varennikov in Rozpad Radians’koho Soiuzu. Usna istoriia nezalezhnoï Ukraïny 1988–91, tape 2, http://oralhistory.org.ua/interview-ua/401/. 13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” National Interest, Summer 1989; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, 1992). 14. George Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (New York, 2008), 914; C. J. Chivers, “Russia Will Pursue Democracy, but in Its Own Way, Putin Says,” New York Times, April 26, 2005. 15.

While losing the battle to save the Soviet Union as a junior partner in the international arena, the Bush administration helped orchestrate its peaceful dissolution. This was no small accomplishment, especially if one thinks of the bloody ends of other empires. On a certain level, history had indeed come to an end—not in the sense of a final victory of liberalism, as declared by the leading American political scientist Francis Fukuyama in his best-selling book The End of History and the Last Man (1990), but in the disappearance of the old European empires. The United States, born of rebellion against an empire and an archenemy of colonialism throughout the world, unexpectedly found itself presiding over the dissolution of a country often labeled the last world empire.

., 331 Egypt, 231 Electoral democracy demonstrations for, 139–143, 202 imperial rule incompatible with, xviii, 13–14, 33, 394 in Russia, xviii, 112 Electoral system, reform of, 29, 33, 35, 56 Elena (Yeltsin’s elder daughter), 100 Elliott, Iain, 118 Empires Soviet Union as last, xvii–xviii, xx–xxii, 34, 40, 178, 182, 185–186, 393 world, xviii, xix, 6, 33, 393, 402 The End of History and the Last Man (Fukuyama), 405 Estonia, 45, 191 annexation of, 192 population, 244 sovereignty and, 174, 175, 195, 197 Ethnic clashes between Azeris and Armenians, 33–34, 213, 357, 361 in Kazakhstan, 349–352 See also specific ethnic groups Ethnicity minorities in Ukraine, 283–286 nationality and mixed, 288–289 EU.


pages: 603 words: 182,826

Owning the Earth: The Transforming History of Land Ownership by Andro Linklater

agricultural Revolution, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, Anton Chekhov, Ayatollah Khomeini, Bear Stearns, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, British Empire, business cycle, colonial rule, Corn Laws, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate governance, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, crony capitalism, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, electricity market, facts on the ground, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Google Earth, Great Leap Forward, income inequality, invisible hand, James Hargreaves, James Watt: steam engine, John Perry Barlow, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kibera, Kickstarter, land reform, land tenure, light touch regulation, market clearing, means of production, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, Mohammed Bouazizi, Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay, mortgage debt, Northern Rock, Peace of Westphalia, Pearl River Delta, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, profit motive, quantitative easing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, refrigerator car, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, spinning jenny, Suez canal 1869, The Chicago School, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, three-masted sailing ship, too big to fail, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, transcontinental railway, ultimatum game, wage slave, WikiLeaks, wikimedia commons, working poor

The collapse of Communism in the Soviet Union in 1989, and the growing strength of China’s market economy, made it appear that one economic system now circled the world. Soaring on the wings of hubris, Thomas Friedman named his popular book on the globalized economy The World is Flat, while Francis Fukuyama updated Walt Rostow’s development strategy and, in a scholarly article that assumed universal capitalism must lead to universal democracy, predicted “The End of History.” Absent from the writings of either author and from the published deliberations of the Federal Reserve and the Bank of England, of governments on either side of the Atlantic, of most of Wall Street and the City of London, and an array of international financial experts, was any suggestion that they understood that the phenomenon of globalization grew out of the disparity between two ways of owning the earth.

almost six hundred trillion dollars: The figure from the Bank for International Settlements for the last quarter of 2007, $596 trillion. the number of politically free countries: Figures for 2007 from Freedom House, “Freedom in the World,” 2008. the 1992 paper he cited: Professor Fukuyama’s assertion of a “strong correlation” between industrial development and democracy is made in “Reflections on the End of History, Five Years Later” by Francis Fukuyama, History and Theory 34, no. 2, Theme Issue 34: World Historians and Their Critics (May, 1995), 27–43. The paper he refers to is by Larry Diamond, “Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered,” American Behavioral Scientist 15 (March–June 1992), 450–499. “free and equal in dignity and rights”: Compared to the painstaking arguments that backed the assertion to natural rights in property and to the pursuit of happiness, the United Nations’ assertion of its human rights is strangely bare.

During the thirty-year experiment, a transformation had taken place in other societies as they became linked to the globalized economy. In that period, the number of politically free countries, according to the index of democracy compiled by Freedom House, rose from forty-three to eighty-seven, home to three billion inhabitants or 43 percent of the global population. For “development” commentators, such as Professor Francis Fukuyama, this was cause and effect, the result of “an extraordinarily strong correlation between high levels of industrial development and stable democracy.” But, as Fukuyama ought to have been aware, the 1992 paper he cited as evidence gave no more than the shakiest support for his belief that industrial development led to democracy.


pages: 363 words: 109,077

The Raging 2020s: Companies, Countries, People - and the Fight for Our Future by Alec Ross

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air gap, air traffic controllers' union, Airbnb, Albert Einstein, An Inconvenient Truth, autonomous vehicles, barriers to entry, benefit corporation, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, big-box store, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, clean water, collective bargaining, computer vision, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate raider, COVID-19, deep learning, Deng Xiaoping, Didi Chuxing, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Double Irish / Dutch Sandwich, drone strike, dumpster diving, employer provided health coverage, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, general purpose technology, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, Goldman Sachs: Vampire Squid, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, high-speed rail, hiring and firing, income inequality, independent contractor, information security, intangible asset, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, knowledge worker, late capitalism, low skilled workers, Lyft, Marc Andreessen, Marc Benioff, mass immigration, megacity, military-industrial complex, minimum wage unemployment, mittelstand, mortgage tax deduction, natural language processing, Oculus Rift, off-the-grid, offshore financial centre, open economy, OpenAI, Parag Khanna, Paris climate accords, profit motive, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, ride hailing / ride sharing, Robert Bork, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, self-driving car, shareholder value, side hustle, side project, Silicon Valley, smart cities, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, sovereign wealth fund, sparse data, special economic zone, Steven Levy, stock buybacks, strikebreaker, TaskRabbit, tech bro, tech worker, transcontinental railway, transfer pricing, Travis Kalanick, trickle-down economics, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, union organizing, Upton Sinclair, vertical integration, working poor

Today, Democrats and Republicans disagree not just on taxes, but also on climate change, health care, immigration, foreign policy, economic regulation, and nearly every issue in between. Over the last decade, we have seen each party obstruct the other, preventing meaningful legislation on these issues from passing. To describe this reality, where obstruction becomes the dominant mode of governance, political scientist Francis Fukuyama coined the term vetocracy. “The delegation of powers to different political actors enables them to block action by the whole body. The U.S. political system has far more of these checks and balances, or what political scientists call ‘veto points,’ than other contemporary democracies, raising the costs of collective action and in some cases make it impossible altogether,” Fukuyama wrote.

Not one of the 237 Democrats: “Republicans Pass Historic Tax Cuts without a Single Democratic Vote,” Axios, December 20, 2017, https://www.axios.com/republicans-pass-historic-tax-cuts-without-a-single-democratic-vote-1515110718-8cdf005c-c1c9-481a-975b-72336765ebe4.html. obstruct the other: Ezra Klein, “Why We Can’t Build,” Vox, April 22, 2020, https://www.vox.com/2020/4/22/21228469/marc-andreessen-build-government-coronavirus. “The delegation of powers to different political actors”: Francis Fukuyama, “America in Decay,” Foreign Affairs, Sept./Oct. 2014, http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/Fukuyama,%20America%20in%20Decay.pdf. “For any particular problem we have”: Steven M. Teles, Kludgeocracy: The American Way of Policy (Washington, DC: New America Foundation, 2012), https://static.newamerica.org/attachments/4209-kludgeocracy-the-american-way-of-policy/Teles_Steven_Kludgeocracy_NAF_Dec2012.d8a805aa40e34bca9e2fecb018a3dcb0.pdf.

American consumers drove Chevys, drank Budweiser, and smoked Marlboros. Their Soviet counterparts drove Ladas, drank Zhigulevskoye, and smoked Belomorkanals. When the Cold War ended, however, the rules that had held for centuries started to change rapidly. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, capitalism became the triumphant economic model. In the “end of history” euphoria, the United States, United Kingdom, and other Western democracies rolled back many of the financial and legal guardrails that tethered businesses to the government. They simultaneously set out to build the infrastructure for a global economy based on free-market capitalism. The European Union was created in 1993, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) went into effect in 1994, and the World Trade Organization kicked off its operations in 1995.


pages: 389 words: 119,487

21 Lessons for the 21st Century by Yuval Noah Harari

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 1960s counterculture, accounting loophole / creative accounting, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, agricultural Revolution, algorithmic trading, augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, Ayatollah Khomeini, basic income, behavioural economics, Bernie Sanders, bitcoin, blockchain, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, call centre, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, carbon-based life, Charlie Hebdo massacre, cognitive dissonance, computer age, computer vision, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, decarbonisation, DeepMind, deglobalization, disinformation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, failed state, fake news, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Freestyle chess, gig economy, glass ceiling, Google Glasses, illegal immigration, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invisible hand, job automation, knowledge economy, liberation theology, Louis Pasteur, low skilled workers, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, means of production, Menlo Park, meta-analysis, Mohammed Bouazizi, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, obamacare, pattern recognition, post-truth, post-work, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, restrictive zoning, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Scramble for Africa, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, TED Talk, transatlantic slave trade, trolley problem, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, uranium enrichment, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, zero-sum game

For a general discussion see for example: Nicholas John Cull, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003). 6 For this interpretation see: Ishaan Tharoor, ‘Brexit: A modern-day Peasants’ Revolt?’, Washington Post, 25 June 2016; John Curtice, ‘US election 2016: The Trump–Brexit voter revolt’, BBC, 11 November 2016. 7 The most famous of these remains, of course, Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London: Penguin, 1992). 8 Karen Dawisha, Putin’s Kleptocracy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014); Timothy Snyder, The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America (New York: Tim Duggan Books, 2018); Anne Garrels, Putin Country: A Journey Into the Real Russia (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2016); Steven Lee Myers, The New Tsar: The Rise and Reign of Vladimir Putin (New York: Knopf Doubleday, 2016). 9 Credit Suisse, Global Wealth Report 2015, 53; Filip Novokmet, Thomas Piketty and Gabriel Zucman, ‘From Soviets to Oligarchs: Inequality and Property in Russia 1905–2016’, July 2017, World Wealth and Income Database; Shaun Walker, ‘Unequal Russia’, Guardian, 25 April 2017. 10 Ayelet Shani, ‘The Israelis Who Take Rebuilding the Third Temple Very Seriously’, Haaretz, 10 August 2017; ‘Israeli Minister: We Should Rebuild Jerusalem Temple’, Israel Today, 7 July 2013; Yuri Yanover, ‘Dep.

Thornton, A Cultural History of the Atlantic World, 1250–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 110. 13 Susannah Cullinane, Hamdi Alkhshali and Mohammed Tawfeeq, ‘Tracking a Trail of Historical Obliteration: ISIS Trumpets Destruction of Nimrud’, CNN, 14 April 2015. 14 Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001), 36–8. 15 ‘ISIS Leader Calls for Muslims to Help Build Islamic State in Iraq’, CBCNEWS, 1 July 2014; Mark Townsend, ‘What Happened to the British Medics Who Went to Work for ISIS?’, Guardian, 12 July 2015. 7. Nationalism 1 Francis Fukuyama, Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalization of Democracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2014). 2 Ashley Killough, ‘Lyndon Johnson’s “Daisy” Ad, Which Changed the World of Politics, Turns 50’, CNN, 8 September 2014. 3 ‘Cause-Specific Mortality: Estimates for 2000–2015’, World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates/en/index1.html, accessed 19 October 2017. 4 David E.

Contents Cover About the Book About the Author Also by Yuval Noah Harari Dedication Title Page Introduction Part I: The Technological Challenge 1. DISILLUSIONMENT The end of history has been postponed 2. WORK When you grow up, you might not have a job 3. LIBERTY Big Data is watching you 4. EQUALITY Those who own the data own the future Part II: The Political Challenge 5. COMMUNITY Humans have bodies 6. CIVILISATION There is just one civilisation in the world 7. NATIONALISM Global problems need global answers 8. RELIGION God now serves the nation 9. IMMIGRATION Some cultures might be better than others Part III: Despair and Hope 10.


pages: 434 words: 117,327

Can It Happen Here?: Authoritarianism in America by Cass R. Sunstein

active measures, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, airline deregulation, anti-communist, anti-globalists, availability heuristic, behavioural economics, Black Lives Matter, Brexit referendum, business cycle, Cambridge Analytica, Cass Sunstein, cognitive load, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Estimating the Reproducibility of Psychological Science, failed state, fake news, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Garrett Hardin, ghettoisation, illegal immigration, immigration reform, Isaac Newton, job automation, Joseph Schumpeter, Long Term Capital Management, microaggression, Nate Silver, Network effects, New Journalism, night-watchman state, nudge theory, obamacare, Paris climate accords, post-truth, Potemkin village, random walk, Richard Thaler, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, seminal paper, Steve Bannon, TED Talk, the scientific method, Tragedy of the Commons, Tyler Cowen, War on Poverty, WikiLeaks, World Values Survey

David Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere: The Populist Revolt and the Future of Politics (London: Hurst, 2017). 36. Ivan Krastev, After Europe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017). 37. This thesis is developed more fully in Ivan Krastev and Stephen Holmes, The End of Victory: The Untold Story of the Unraveling of the Post-1989 Order (forthcoming). 38. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (Summer 1989). 39. Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011). 40. Thomas Geoghegan, Only One Thing Can Save Us: Why America Needs a New Kind of Labor Movement (New York: New Press, 2014). 41.

The key to explaining the appeal of authoritarian xenophobia in Hungary, Poland, and elsewhere in the region lies in the aftermath of 1989. The end of the Cold War was experienced there as the beginning of the Age of Imitation.37 This is why we can trace the roots of the current crisis of liberal democracy to the communist collapse. Francis Fukuyama’s central thesis was that, after the Soviet Union dissolved, Western-style liberal democracy had no serious competitors. This thesis, put into practice, turned out to have exceptionally perverse consequences.38 Because Western liberal democracy was unrivaled and uncontested, it allegedly offered the one and only political and economic model worthy of emulation.

Rather, it is something that sits just beneath the surface of any human society—including in the advanced liberal democracies at the heart of the Western world—and can be activated by core elements of liberal democracy itself. Liberal democracy can become its own undoing because its core elements activate forces that undermine it and its best features constrain it from vigorously protecting itself. So it seems we are not at the “end of history” (Fukuyama 1992). The “last man” is not a perfected liberal democrat. Liberal democracy may not be the “final form of human government.” And intolerance is not a thing of the past; it is very much a thing of the present, and of the future. References Adorno, Theodor, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, and D.


pages: 387 words: 120,092

The Idea of Israel: A History of Power and Knowledge by Ilan Pappe

affirmative action, Ayatollah Khomeini, Boycotts of Israel, British Empire, disinformation, double helix, facts on the ground, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, mass immigration, Mount Scopus, Nelson Mandela, New Journalism, one-state solution, postnationalism / post nation state, stem cell, Suez canal 1869, urban planning, Yom Kippur War

More than 600 people filled the university hall and gave up the game in which Bulgaria kicked Germany out of the World Cup.’ Zvi Gilat, Yedioth Ahronoth, 13 July 1994. 5 I have described this in Ilan Pappe, Out of the Frame: The Struggle for Academic Freedom, London: Pluto, 2010. 6 See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992. 7 Gorny, ‘Thoughts on Zionism as a Utopian Ideology’. 8 This is part of a campaign led by the Israeli Ministry of Information called ‘The Faces of Israel’ launched in 2000. 9 See Omar Barghouti, Boycott, Divestment, Sanction: The Global Struggle for Palestinian Rights, New York: Haymarket Books, 2011. 10 Edward Said, Orientalism, New York: Vintage, 1979, pp. 5–28.

The images and narratives formulated by Zionist leaders and activists in the past, and Israeli Jewish intellectuals and academics in the present, present Israel as the inevitable, successful implementation of the European history of ideas. Ideas are the transformative agents that in any narrative of Western enlightenment lifted Western societies, and in turn the rest of the world, out of medieval darkness and into the Renaissance, and helped restore civilisation following the Second World War. According to Francis Fukuyama, this history of ideas would almost have reached its culmination had not political Islam, national movements in the former Soviet bloc, and Marxist leaders in South America ‘sabotaged’ the train of progress and modernisation.6 Israel was one such transformative idea. To challenge it as such is to challenge the entire narrative of the West as the driving global force of human progress and enlightenment.


pages: 637 words: 199,158

The Tragedy of Great Power Politics by John J. Mearsheimer

active measures, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, British Empire, colonial rule, continuation of politics by other means, deindustrialization, discrete time, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, guns versus butter model, Herman Kahn, illegal immigration, long peace, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, oil shock, Pareto efficiency, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, Suez canal 1869, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Yom Kippur War

Nisbet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 93–130. Also see John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Michael Mandelbaum, “Is Major War Obsolete?” Survival 40, No. 4 (Winter 1998–99), pp. 20–38; and Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest, No. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18, which was the basis of Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 2. Charles L. Glaser, “Realists as Optimists: Cooperation as Self-Help,” International Security 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994–95), pp. 50–90. 3. The balance of power is a concept that has a variety of meanings.

Goncharov, Lewis, and Litai, Uncertain Partners, chap. 5; Mastny, The Cold War, pp. 85–97; Weathersby, “Soviet Aims in Korea” and Kathryn Weathersby, “To Attack or Not to Attack: Stalin, Kim Il Sung, and the Prelude to War,” CWIHP Bulletin 5 (Spring 1995), pp. 1–9. 85. See inter alia Galia Golan, The Soviet Union and National Liberation Movements in the Third World (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1988); Andrzej Korbonski and Francis Fukuyama, eds., The Soviet Union and the Third World: The Last Three Decades (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987); Bruce D. Porter, The USSR in Third World Conflicts: Soviet Arms and Diplomacy in Local Wars, 1945–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); and Carol R. Saivetz, ed., The Soviet Union in the Third World (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989). 86.

The end of the Cold War, so the argument goes, marked a sea change in how great powers interact with one another. We have entered a world in which there is little chance that the major powers will engage each other in security competition, much less war, which has become an obsolescent enterprise. In the words of one famous author, the end of the Cold War has brought us to the “the end of history.”1 This perspective suggests that great powers no longer view each other as potential military rivals, but instead as members of a family of nations, members of what is sometimes called the “international community.” The prospects for cooperation are abundant in this promising new world, a world which is likely to bring increased prosperity and peace to all the great powers.


pages: 691 words: 203,236

Whiteshift: Populism, Immigration and the Future of White Majorities by Eric Kaufmann

4chan, Abraham Maslow, affirmative action, Amazon Mechanical Turk, anti-communist, anti-globalists, augmented reality, battle of ideas, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, centre right, Chelsea Manning, cognitive dissonance, complexity theory, corporate governance, correlation does not imply causation, critical race theory, crowdsourcing, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, data science, David Brooks, deindustrialization, demographic transition, Donald Trump, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, facts on the ground, failed state, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, Great Leap Forward, Haight Ashbury, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, immigration reform, imperial preference, income inequality, it's over 9,000, Jeremy Corbyn, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, liberal capitalism, longitudinal study, Lyft, mass immigration, meta-analysis, microaggression, moral panic, Nate Silver, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, open borders, open immigration, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Overton Window, phenotype, postnationalism / post nation state, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Republic of Letters, Ronald Reagan, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, Social Justice Warrior, statistical model, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, the built environment, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, transcontinental railway, twin studies, uber lyft, upwardly mobile, urban sprawl, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus, white flight, working-age population, World Values Survey, young professional

The Bushes’ string of victories produced an optimistic mindset in which the Republican elite felt they could win Latino votes with a package emphasizing conservative social values and the work ethic. Ideologically, the fall of the Berlin Wall gave rise to an optimistic ‘End of History’ spirit among American neoconservatives and interventionist liberals, symbolized by Francis Fukuyama’s iconic book of 1992.40 With communism defeated, liberalism, capitalism and democracy, under American tutelage, could finally become universal. A global framework based on the Pax Americana and the shared values of the ‘Washington Consensus’ would revolutionize humanity.

Both are seminal influences on today’s internet-based white nationalist movement which forms the core of today’s alternative right, or ‘alt right’.55 Neoconservatives preferred to endorse American exceptionalism, the idea that the US was a new type of post-ethnic nation. Most came to approve of Official English, opposed affirmative action and bilingual education and endorsed the need for immigrants to embrace a positive view of American history. They focused squarely on the creedal elements in the national repertoire. Francis Fukuyama, whom I interviewed soon after Brimelow’s book came out, saw value in the country’s ethno-traditions, thus deviating from the missionary nationalism of the neoconservatives. He argued that English was key for assimilation and traced the country’s founding to its Anglo-Protestant forebears. Where Fukuyama was critical of paleoconservatism was over Brimelow’s emphasis on a ‘white’ ethnic core rather than an Anglo-Protestant cultural inheritance which could be readily adopted by citizens of any background.

When genetic tests revealed this to be true, the findings reinforced their myth of descent.29 In contrast, a study of North African Jews which showed them to be more similar to Arabs than European Jews caused ructions because it challenged existing beliefs.30 The active manipulation of genes would be much more consequential, raising a wide range of questions which Francis Fukuyama tackles in Our Posthuman Future (2002). The least intrusive form is to use gene therapy to modify our genetic makeup, altering physical traits. A more problematic step is to select which embryo we would like from a range of naturally occurring possibilities so that no one could guess that we engineered our baby’s characteristics.


pages: 138 words: 43,748

Conscience of a Conservative: A Rejection of Destructive Politics and a Return to Principle by Jeff Flake

4chan, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, cognitive dissonance, crony capitalism, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global supply chain, immigration reform, impulse control, invisible hand, Mark Zuckerberg, obamacare, Potemkin village, race to the bottom, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, uranium enrichment, zero-sum game

At the time, as the wall fell and the Soviet bloc that had been encased in Stalinism thawed, it was a vogue among some historians, scholars, and others to declare “the end of history”—that the big questions had been settled, that liberal democracy was triumphal and inexorable, and that the decline of the blackhearted impulse to enslave whole countries was also inexorable. Freedom had won, it was said, and for ever. The historian Francis Fukuyama, who had coined “the end of history” in an essay the year before, was much in demand, and it is likely that Havel would have been inspired by the fervor, which would explain this passage from his speech: “I often hear the question: How can the United States of America help us today?


pages: 452 words: 126,310

The Case for Space: How the Revolution in Spaceflight Opens Up a Future of Limitless Possibility by Robert Zubrin

Ada Lovelace, Albert Einstein, anthropic principle, Apollo 11, battle of ideas, Boeing 747, Charles Babbage, Charles Lindbergh, Colonization of Mars, complexity theory, cosmic microwave background, cosmological principle, Dennis Tito, discovery of DNA, double helix, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, flex fuel, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gravity well, if you build it, they will come, Internet Archive, invisible hand, ITER tokamak, James Webb Space Telescope, Jeff Bezos, Johannes Kepler, John von Neumann, Kim Stanley Robinson, Kuiper Belt, low earth orbit, Mars Rover, Mars Society, Menlo Park, more computing power than Apollo, Naomi Klein, nuclear winter, ocean acidification, off grid, out of africa, Peter H. Diamandis: Planetary Resources, Peter Thiel, place-making, Pluto: dwarf planet, private spaceflight, Recombinant DNA, rising living standards, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, SoftBank, SpaceX Starlink, Strategic Defense Initiative, Stuart Kauffman, telerobotics, Thomas Malthus, three-masted sailing ship, time dilation, transcontinental railway, uranium enrichment, Virgin Galactic, Wayback Machine

Thus, in his seminal work on world history, The Evolution of Civilizations, historian Carroll Quigley identified seven major stages in the development of societies: (1) mixture, (2) gestation, (3) expansion, (4) conflict, (5) universal empire, (6) decay, and (7) collapse.4 With its victory in the Cold War circa 1990, Western (essentially modern global) civilization reached stage five. Should we choose to continue in the footsteps of such historical analogs, stage six would soon follow—and in fact, some would argue that it has already begun. In 1992, philosophy professor Francis Fukuyama wrote a widely read book entitled The End of History, in which he posited that with the unification of the world resulting from the West's victory in the Cold War, human history had essentially “ended.”5 In 1996, Scientific American writer James Horgan published a much more interesting best seller entitled The End of Science, in which he held that all the really big discoveries to be made in science had already been made, and thus the enterprise of scientific discovery must soon grind to a halt.6 (The day after I finished reading Horgan's book in February 1998, a group of astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope announced they had found a fifth fundamental force in nature.)

Christopher Stringer and Robin McKie, African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity (New York: Henry Holt, 1997). 2. James Shreve, The Neanderthal Enigma: Solving the Mystery of Modern Human Origins (New York: Avon Books, 1995). 3. William McNeill, The Rise of the West (New York: Mentor Books, 1965). 4. Carroll Quigley, The Evolution of Civilizations (Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1961). 5. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History (New York: Free Press, 1992). 6. James Horgan, The End of Science (New York: Broadway Books, 1997). 7. Thomas D. Snyder, 120 Years of American Education: A Statistical Portrait (Washington, DC: US Department of Education, 1993), pp. 85–87, https://nces.ed.gov/pubs93/93442.pdf (accessed November 24, 2018).

I believe this marks the end, not of human history but merely of the first phase of human history: our development into a mature Type I civilization. It is not the end of history, because if we choose to embrace it, we have in space a new frontier offering endless challenge—an infinite frontier, filled with worlds waiting to be discovered and history waiting to be made by myriad new branches of human civilization waiting to be born. Are we living at the end of history or at the beginning of history? Are we old, or are we young? The choice is ours. FOCUS SECTION: SPACE PROGRAM SPIN-OFFS One of the main selling points that NASA has frequently advanced to support its funding are the technological advances developed to meet space program needs that have greatly benefited society at large.


pages: 388 words: 125,472

The Establishment: And How They Get Away With It by Owen Jones

anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, autism spectrum disorder, bank run, battle of ideas, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bonus culture, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, centre right, citizen journalism, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, disinformation, don't be evil, Edward Snowden, Etonian, eurozone crisis, falling living standards, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, G4S, glass ceiling, hiring and firing, housing crisis, inflation targeting, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), investor state dispute settlement, James Dyson, Jon Ronson, laissez-faire capitalism, land bank, light touch regulation, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, mass immigration, Monroe Doctrine, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, Neil Kinnock, night-watchman state, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, old-boy network, open borders, Overton Window, plutocrats, popular capitalism, post-war consensus, profit motive, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rent control, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, shareholder value, short selling, sovereign wealth fund, stakhanovite, statistical model, subprime mortgage crisis, Suez crisis 1956, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, transfer pricing, Tyler Cowen, union organizing, unpaid internship, Washington Consensus, We are all Keynesians now, wealth creators, Winter of Discontent

Politicians largely conform to a similar script; once-mighty trade unions are now treated as if they have no legitimate place in political or even public life; and economists and academics who reject Establishment ideology have been largely driven out of the intellectual mainstream. The end of the Cold War was spun by politicians, intellectuals and the media to signal the death of any alternative to the status quo: ‘the end of history’, as US political scientist Francis Fukuyama put it. All this has left the Establishment pushing at an open door. Whereas the position of the powerful was once undermined by the advent of democracy, an opposite process is now underway. The Establishment is amassing wealth and aggressively annexing power in a way that has no precedent in modern times.

As well as the dramatic political shifts in Britain, the proponents of unrestrained free-market economics were helped by other developments too. When the Soviet bloc collapsed in the late 1980s onwards, it was spun as a dramatic victory for free-market capitalism. It was the ‘end of history’, declared US political scientist Francis Fukuyama. ‘It’s time to say we’ve won, goodbye’ was the assessment of US neo-conservative Midge Decter. Even mild Keynesianism, however non-existent its links with Soviet-style Communism, was somehow seen as beyond the pale. Even mild forms of state involvement in the economy were consigned to a discredited past.


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The Left Case Against the EU by Costas Lapavitsas

anti-work, antiwork, banking crisis, Bretton Woods, capital controls, central bank independence, collective bargaining, declining real wages, eurozone crisis, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global reserve currency, hiring and firing, low interest rates, machine translation, neoliberal agenda, offshore financial centre, post-work, price stability, quantitative easing, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, Washington Consensus, Wolfgang Streeck

It was very much a product of its time marked by the discrediting of state-controlled socialism, the retreat of organized labour in the previous decade in the face of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan, and the ascendancy of neoliberal economics in both theory and policy. That was the moment of Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man, a book that gained tremendous visibility by claiming that liberal democracy and free-market capitalism went hand-in-hand, and together had actually won the grand historical contest among political and social systems.2 The Maastricht Treaty encapsulated the spirit of the time for Europe, and was a moment of historic importance in the evolution of the European project.3 The EU engaged in further sustained expansion in the 1990s and the 2000s, above all by incorporating a host of new countries in Eastern Europe and developing its international presence.

‘The Systemic Crisis of the Euro: True Causes and Effective Therapies’, Rosa Luxemburg Stiftung Studien, available at: http://www.rosalux.de/fileadmin/rls_uploads/pdfs/Studien/Studien_The_systemic_crisis_web.pdf Flassbeck, H. and C. Lapavitsas 2015. Against the Troika: Crisis and Austerity in the Eurozone, London and New York: Verso. Fukuyama, F. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press. Fukuyama, F. 2007. ‘The History at the End of History’, The Guardian, 3 April, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/apr/03/thehistoryattheendofhist Giurlando, P. 2016. Eurozone Politics: Perception and Reality in Italy, the UK, and Germany, London and New York: Routledge. Gourinchas P.O., T.

This is fully appreciated in the academic literature, which recognizes the end of the ‘permissive consensus’ after Maastricht, that is, the end of a period in which European integration proceeded mostly from above as a project operated by the elites of European countries. After Maastricht, ‘Europe’ became an issue of national and popular politics and the functioning of the EU acquired new characteristics. See Hooghe and Marks (2009) and Bickerton, Hodson, and Puetter (2015). 4. More than a decade after publishing The End of History and the Last Man, Fukuyama (2007) helpfully explained in the British Guardian that his model for the triumph of ‘post-historical’ liberal democracy was not the USA but the EU precisely because it was transnational (Fukuyama 2007). 5. Academics have long discussed the ‘crisis of representation’ in Europe: see, for instance, the special issues of West European Politics (Hayward 1995) and the European Journal of Political Research (summed up in Norris 1997).


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People, Power, and Profits: Progressive Capitalism for an Age of Discontent by Joseph E. Stiglitz

affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, AlphaGo, antiwork, barriers to entry, basic income, battle of ideas, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, business cycle, Cambridge Analytica, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, carried interest, central bank independence, clean water, collective bargaining, company town, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, crony capitalism, DeepMind, deglobalization, deindustrialization, disinformation, disintermediation, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial innovation, financial intermediation, Firefox, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, global macro, global supply chain, greed is good, green new deal, income inequality, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John von Neumann, Joseph Schumpeter, labor-force participation, late fees, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, mass incarceration, meta-analysis, minimum wage unemployment, moral hazard, new economy, New Urbanism, obamacare, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, patent troll, Paul Samuelson, pension reform, Peter Thiel, postindustrial economy, price discrimination, principal–agent problem, profit maximization, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, Richard Thaler, Robert Bork, Robert Gordon, Robert Mercer, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, search costs, secular stagnation, self-driving car, shareholder value, Shoshana Zuboff, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, speech recognition, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, surveillance capitalism, TED Talk, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The Great Moderation, the market place, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade liberalization, transaction costs, trickle-down economics, two-sided market, universal basic income, Unsafe at Any Speed, Upton Sinclair, uranium enrichment, War on Poverty, working-age population, Yochai Benkler

—MARK 3:25; ABRAHAM LINCOLN CHAPTER 1 Introduction That things are not going well in the US and in many other advanced countries is a mild understatement. There is widespread discontent in the land. It wasn’t supposed to be this way, according to the dominant thinking in American economics and political science in the last quarter century. After the fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, Francis Fukuyama declared The End of History, as democracy and capitalism at last had triumphed. A new era of global prosperity, with faster-than-ever growth, was thought to be at hand, and America was supposed to be in the lead.1 By 2018, those soaring ideas seem finally to have crashed to Earth. The 2008 financial crisis showed that capitalism wasn’t all that it was supposed to be—it seemed neither efficient nor stable.

US labor force participation rate (the fraction of working-age citizens who either have or are looking for a job) is also much lower than that of many other countries with much higher tax rates. 46.Nancy MacLean, a distinguished historian at Duke University, has put these arguments into historical context in her book Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Penguin, 2017). 47.Including our rules-based competitive market economy and our democracy with its system of checks and balances to which we referred earlier, and upon which we will elaborate below. 48.Inaugural address, Jan. 20, 1961. 49.As we noted earlier, Francis Fukuyama referred to this as the “end of history.” All the world would now converge to this economic and political system. 50.Alain Cohn, Ernst Fehr, and Michel André Maréchal, “Business Culture and Dishonesty in the Banking Industry,” Nature 516, no. 7592 (2014): 86–89. 51.Yoram Bauman and Elaina Rose, “Selection or Indoctrination: Why Do Economics Students Donate Less than the Rest?

Norton), I analyzed the unfolding Great Recession, giving recommendations for how serious, extended economic underperformance could be avoided, and how the financial sector could be reformed to prevent such bubbles and their bursting in the future. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.The full title of Fukuyama’s 1992 book is The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press). After the election of Trump, his views changed: “Twenty five years ago, I didn’t have a sense or a theory about how democracies can go backward. And I think they clearly can.” Ishaan Tharoor, “The Man Who Declared the ‘End of History’ Fears for Democracy’s Future,” Washington Post, Feb. 9, 2017. 2.This is the thesis of a recent book by Adam Tooze of Columbia University, Crashed: How a Decade of Financial Crises Changed the World (New York: Viking, 2018). 3.New York: Harper, 2016. 4.New York: The New Press, 2016. 5.See also Jennifer Sherman, Those Who Work, Those Who Don’t: Poverty, Morality, and Family in Rural America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Joan C.


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Destined for War: America, China, and Thucydides's Trap by Graham Allison

9 dash line, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, capital controls, Carmen Reinhart, conceptual framework, cuban missile crisis, currency manipulation / currency intervention, Deng Xiaoping, disruptive innovation, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, escalation ladder, facts on the ground, false flag, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, game design, George Santayana, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, Haber-Bosch Process, Herman Kahn, high-speed rail, industrial robot, Internet of things, Kenneth Rogoff, liberal world order, long peace, Mark Zuckerberg, megacity, megaproject, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, mutually assured destruction, Nelson Mandela, one-China policy, Paul Samuelson, Peace of Westphalia, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Scramble for Africa, selection bias, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, South China Sea, special economic zone, spice trade, Suez canal 1869, synthetic biology, TED Talk, the rule of 72, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, trade route, UNCLOS, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game

Acknowledging that the “lines between [civilizations] are seldom sharp,” Huntington argued that they are nonetheless “real.”12 Huntington by no means ruled out future violent conflicts between groups within a common civilization. His point, rather, was that in a post–Cold War world, civilizational fault lines would not dissolve in a global convergence toward liberal world order—as one of Huntington’s former students, the political scholar Francis Fukuyama, had predicted in his 1989 article “The End of History?”13—but become more pronounced. “Differences do not necessarily mean conflict, and conflict does not necessarily mean violence,” Huntington allowed. “Over the centuries, however, differences among civilizations have generated the most prolonged and the most violent conflicts.”14 Huntington was keen to disabuse readers of the Western myth of universal values, which he said was not just naive but inimical to other civilizations, particularly the Confucian one with China at its center.

Qianlong’s First Edict to King George III (September 1793), in The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection, ed. Pei-kai Cheng, Michael Lestz, and Jonathan Spence (New York: Norton, 1999), 104–6. [back] 11. Samuel Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer 1993), 22. [back] 12. Ibid., 24. [back] 13. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” The National Interest, no. 16 (Summer 1989), 3–18. [back] 14. Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?,” 25. [back] 15. Ibid., 41. [back] 16. Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, 2003), 225. [back] 17.

As Geoff Dyer has explained, “The Communist Party has faced a slow-burning threat to its legitimacy ever since it dumped Marx for the market.” Thus the Party has evoked past humiliations at the hands of Japan and the West “to create a sense of unity that had been fracturing, and to define a Chinese identity fundamentally at odds with American modernity.”47 During the 1990s when many Western thought leaders were celebrating the “end of history” with the apparent triumph of market-based democracies, a number of observers believed that China, too, was on a path to democratic government. Today, few in China would say that political freedoms are more important than reclaiming China’s international standing and national pride. As Lee put it pointedly, “If you believe that there is going to be a revolution of some sort in China for democracy, you are wrong.


pages: 494 words: 132,975

Keynes Hayek: The Clash That Defined Modern Economics by Nicholas Wapshott

airport security, Alan Greenspan, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, collective bargaining, complexity theory, creative destruction, cuban missile crisis, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Gunnar Myrdal, if you build it, they will come, Isaac Newton, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, liquidationism / Banker’s doctrine / the Treasury view, means of production, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, mortgage debt, New Journalism, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, Northern Rock, Paul Samuelson, Philip Mirowski, Phillips curve, price mechanism, public intellectual, pushing on a string, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Simon Kuznets, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, trickle-down economics, Tyler Cowen, War on Poverty, We are all Keynesians now, Yom Kippur War

Hassett, “The Second Coming of Keynes,” National Review, February 9, 2009. 11 UCLA Oral History Program, p. 195. 12 Robert E. Lucas Jr., “Macroeconomic Priorities,” presidential address to the American Economic Association, January 10, 2003, http://home.uchicago.edu/%7Esogrodow/homepage/paddress03.pdf. 13 Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (1952– ), American political economist. 14 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1992). 15 Ben Bernanke (1953– ), chairman of the Federal Reserve (2006– ), chairman of George W. Bush’s Council of Economic Advisers (2005–6). 16 Ben Bernanke, remarks at “A Conference to Honor Milton Friedman,” University of Chicago, Chicago, November 8, 2002. 17 Michael Kinsley (1951– ), American political journalist. 18 Michael Kinsley, “Greenspan Shrugged,” The New York Times, October 14, 2007. 19 Greenspan, Age of Turbulence, p. 68. 20 George H.

“Its central prob-lem of depression-prevention has been solved, for all practical pur-poses.”12 When the Cold War ended, the American political economist Francis Fukuyama13 declared that the evolutionary stages of societal development, from feudalism through agricultural and industrial revolutions to a modern capitalist democracy, had come to an end; the world had reached “the end of history.”14 It was with a similar confidence that economists announced “the end of economic history”: the world economy was cured of the prospect of a return to depression. Friedman, not Keynes, was credited with solving the mystery of why the Great Depression of the 1930s occurred and how it could be prevented from happening again.

., Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money [University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1956]). Friedman, Milton, and Rose D. Friedman. Two Lucky People: Memoirs (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1998). Friedman, Milton, and Anna D. Schwartz. A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1963). Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man (Free Press, New York, 1992). Galbraith, James K. Ambassador’s Journal (Houghton Mifflin, New York, 1969). —. A Life in Our Times (Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1981). —. The Essential Galbraith, ed. Andrea D. Williams (Mariner Books, Orlando, Fla., 2001). —. The Predator State: How Conservatives Abandoned the Free Market and Why Liberals Should Too (Free Press, New York, 2008).


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Open: The Story of Human Progress by Johan Norberg

Abraham Maslow, additive manufacturing, affirmative action, Albert Einstein, anti-globalists, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Bletchley Park, Brexit referendum, British Empire, business cycle, business process, California gold rush, carbon tax, citizen journalism, classic study, Clayton Christensen, clean water, cognitive dissonance, collective bargaining, Corn Laws, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, crony capitalism, decarbonisation, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, digital map, Donald Trump, Edward Jenner, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, Filter Bubble, financial innovation, flying shuttle, Flynn Effect, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, Galaxy Zoo, George Gilder, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global supply chain, global village, green new deal, humanitarian revolution, illegal immigration, income per capita, Indoor air pollution, indoor plumbing, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, Isaac Newton, Islamic Golden Age, James Watt: steam engine, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John von Neumann, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, labour mobility, Lao Tzu, liberal capitalism, manufacturing employment, mass immigration, negative emissions, Network effects, open borders, open economy, Pax Mongolica, place-making, profit motive, RAND corporation, regulatory arbitrage, rent control, Republic of Letters, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Schrödinger's Cat, sharing economy, side project, Silicon Valley, Solyndra, spice trade, stem cell, Steve Bannon, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Steven Pinker, tacit knowledge, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, Tyler Cowen, Uber for X, ultimatum game, universal basic income, World Values Survey, Xiaogang Anhui farmers, zero-sum game

The shock of this transition is one of the factors that have made possible the rise of those reactionary movements which have tried, and still try, to overthrow civilization and to return to tribalism.’ Karl Popper, 1945 Around the time of the fall of communism, two essays that would later be extended to book format captured the interest of the chattering classes. The first one was Francis Fukuyama’s ‘The End of History?’ from 1989, arguing that liberal capitalist democracies were the final form of government and that history had in effect ended. The other essay, in many ways a response, was ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’ by Fukuyama’s old teacher Samuel Huntington. Huntington thought a new phase of history was starting after the Cold War, one that would be defined by traditional civilizations, which would set the pattern for collaborations and conflicts.

1 ‘Freedom in the world: Electoral democracies 1989–2016’, Freedom House, https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Electoral%20Democracy%20Numbers%2C%20FIW%201989-2016.pdf (accessed 9 March 2020). 2 G. Ward, The Politics of Discipleship. Grand Rapids, Baker Academic, 2009, p. 49. 3 F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man. London, Penguin Books, 2012, pp. 288 and 312. 4 Fukuyama, 2012, p. 328. See also P. Sagar, ‘The last hollow laugh’, Aeon Essays, 21 March 2017, https://aeon.co/essays/was-francis-fukuyama-the-first-man-to-see-trump-coming (accessed 9 March 2020). 5 Pinker, 2011. 6 S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York, Simon & Schuster, 2007, ch. 12. 7 I.

But he feared even more an assault from a reactionary Right, yearning for heroism and hierarchies that are lost in an egalitarian, consumerist world populated by the last men ‘without chests’. Therefore, there is a constant temptation to ‘return to being first men engaged in bloody and pointless prestige battles, only this time with modern weapons’. When he discussed whether the status-seeking and power-hungry would in the long run be satisfied with the comfortable life at the end of history, he just happened to mention ‘a developer like Donald Trump’.4 I don’t agree with all of Fukuyama’s analysis, and I do think he overdosed on Hegel and Nietzsche. But he was perceptive in his historical positioning of liberal capitalism and of the cultural and psychological factors that make us uncomfortable with it, and which therefore threaten to undermine it.


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Jihad vs. McWorld: Terrorism's Challenge to Democracy by Benjamin Barber

airport security, Alvin Toffler, anti-communist, Apple's 1984 Super Bowl advert, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, classic study, computer age, Corn Laws, Corrections Corporation of America, David Brooks, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, digital map, export processing zone, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Gilder, global village, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Joan Didion, Kevin Kelly, laissez-faire capitalism, late capitalism, Live Aid, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, minimum wage unemployment, new economy, Norbert Wiener, North Sea oil, off-the-grid, pirate software, Plato's cave, postnationalism / post nation state, profit motive, race to the bottom, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, undersea cable, vertical integration, young professional, zero-sum game

Finally, neither Jihad nor McWorld has any intrinsic interest in the fairness question and here, as in other domains, the poorest nations with neither energy reserves nor a productive economy do the worst. They are “good energy citizens” by default, because in the cruel competition of McWorld they are not citizens at all. APPENDIX B TWENTY-TWO COUNTRIES’ TOP TEN GROSSING FILMS, 1991 Notes Introduction 1. Francis Fukuyama, in The End of History and the Last Man, (New York: Free Press, 1992), although he is far less pleased by his prognosis in his book than he seemed in the original National Interest essay that occasioned all the controversy; and Walter B. Wriston, Twilight of Sovereignty (New York: Scribner’s, 1992). 2.

For in the economics of McWorld, the traditional dominance of raw materials and goods yields to a novel and distinctive new realm of activity—what I call the infotainment telesector—that redefines the economic realities of McWorld and reorders the relations of nation-states in ways that neither Francis Fukuyama nor Paul Kennedy could anticipate. 2 The Resource Imperative: The Passing of Autarky and the Fall of the West TRADE IN NATURAL resources and the fruits of the land, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, is among the oldest and most prosperous and profitable sectors of the economy, dating back to the beginning of economic time.

In the short run the forces of Jihad, noisier and more obviously nihilistic than those of McWorld, are likely to dominate the near future, etching small stories of local tragedy and regional genocide on the face of our times and creating a climate of instability marked by multimicrowars inimical to global integration. But in the long run, the forces of McWorld are the forces underlying the slow certain thrust of Western civilization and as such may be unstoppable. Jihad’s microwars will hold the headlines well into the next century, making predictions of the end of history look terminally dumb. But McWorld’s homogenization is likely to establish a macropeace that favors the triumph of commerce and its markets and to give to those who control information, communication, and entertainment ultimate (if inadvertent) control over human destiny. Unless we can offer an alternative to the struggle between Jihad and McWorld, the epoch on whose threshold we stand—postcommunist, postindustrial, postnational, yet sectarian, fearful, and bigoted—is likely also to be terminally postdemocratic.


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The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War by Robert D. Kaplan

Berlin Wall, bread and circuses, clean water, Deng Xiaoping, edge city, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Honoré de Balzac, mass immigration, military-industrial complex, Peace of Westphalia, Ronald Reagan, Thomas Malthus, trade route, unemployed young men, Yom Kippur War

The breaking apart and remakina of crack • 8 H ^ T ^ f t G m i R f n f t U S e r e and OF T H E P O S T C O L D W A R of the Arab-Israel milita^ Qngp^tj^n^areQnerely prologues^tothe realU Ina changes that lie ahead. . . . A u t h o r of B A L K A N GHOSTS U.S.A. $21.95 Canada $33.00 When "The Coming Anarchy" was published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1994, it was hailed as among the most important and influential articulations of the future of our planet, along with Francis Fukuyama's "The End of History" and Samuel P. Huntington's "The Clash of Civilizations." Since then, Robert Kaplan's anti-utopian vision of the fault lines of the twentyfirst century has taken on the status of a paradigm. "The Coming Anarchy" has been hailed as the defining thesis for understanding the post-Cold War world.


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To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological Solutionism by Evgeny Morozov

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, algorithmic bias, algorithmic trading, Amazon Mechanical Turk, An Inconvenient Truth, Andrew Keen, augmented reality, Automated Insights, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, big data - Walmart - Pop Tarts, Buckminster Fuller, call centre, carbon footprint, Cass Sunstein, choice architecture, citizen journalism, classic study, cloud computing, cognitive bias, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, data acquisition, Dava Sobel, digital divide, disintermediation, Donald Shoup, driverless car, East Village, en.wikipedia.org, Evgeny Morozov, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Firefox, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, frictionless, future of journalism, game design, gamification, Gary Taubes, Google Glasses, Ian Bogost, illegal immigration, income inequality, invention of the printing press, Jane Jacobs, Jean Tirole, Jeff Bezos, jimmy wales, Julian Assange, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, license plate recognition, lifelogging, lolcat, lone genius, Louis Pasteur, machine readable, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, moral panic, Narrative Science, Nelson Mandela, Nicholas Carr, packet switching, PageRank, Parag Khanna, Paul Graham, peer-to-peer, Peter Singer: altruism, Peter Thiel, pets.com, placebo effect, pre–internet, public intellectual, Ray Kurzweil, recommendation engine, Richard Thaler, Ronald Coase, Rosa Parks, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, Slavoj Žižek, smart meter, social graph, social web, stakhanovite, Steve Jobs, Steven Levy, Stuxnet, surveillance capitalism, systems thinking, technoutopianism, TED Talk, the built environment, The Chicago School, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the medium is the message, The Nature of the Firm, the scientific method, The Wisdom of Crowds, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Thomas L Friedman, transaction costs, Twitter Arab Spring, urban decay, urban planning, urban sprawl, Vannevar Bush, warehouse robotics, WikiLeaks, work culture , Yochai Benkler

. ,” see Frederic Jameson, “Future City,” New Left Review 21 (2003): 65–80. 22 this experience of the “offline” is also profoundly affected: Nathan Jurgenson, “The IRL Fetish,” The New Inquiry, June 28, 2012, http://thenewinquiry.com/essays/the-irl-fetish. 23 the French finally pull the plug on Minitel: Scott Sayare, “After 3 Decades in France, Minitel’s Days Are Numbered,” New York Times, June 27, 2012. 23 Silicon Valley’s own version of the end of history: see Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, reprint ed. (New York: Free Press, 2006). 23 “policymakers should work with the grain of the Internet”: Eric Schmidt, “Let Luvvie Embrace Boffin in the Digital Future,” The Guardian, August 26, 2011. 23 “without a major upgrade”: Rebecca MacKinnon, “Why Doesn’t Washington Understand the Internet?

But perhaps we can’t imagine life after “the Internet” because we don’t think that “the Internet” is going anywhere. If the public debate is any indication, the finality of “the Internet”—the belief that it’s the ultimate technology and the ultimate network—has been widely accepted. It’s Silicon Valley’s own version of the end of history: just as capitalism-driven liberal democracy in Francis Fukuyama’s controversial account remains the only game in town, so does the capitalism-driven “Internet.” It, the logic goes, is a precious gift from the gods that humanity should never abandon or tinker with. Thus, while “the Internet” might disrupt everything, it itself should never be disrupted.

But, alas, the preservation of “the Internet” seems to have become an end in itself, to the great detriment of our ability even to imagine what might come to supplant it and how our Internet fetish might be blocking that something from emerging. To choose “the Internet” over the starkly uncertain future of the post-Internet world is to tacitly acknowledge that either “the Internet” has satisfied all our secret plans, longings, and desires—that is, it is indeed Silicon Valley’s own “end of history”—or that we simply can’t imagine what else innovation could unleash. The irony is that Zittrain’s theory of generativity, while very critical of gatekeepers like Apple, is itself a gatekeeper. While generativity green-lights good, reliable, and predictable innovation, the kind that promises to stay within the confines of “the Internet” and leave things as they are, it frowns upon—and possibly even blocks—the unruly and disruptive kind that might start within “the Internet” but eventually transcend, supplant, and perhaps even eliminate it.


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Culture and Imperialism by Edward W. Said

Ayatollah Khomeini, Bartolomé de las Casas, Bretton Woods, British Empire, colonial rule, disinformation, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Herbert Marcuse, Howard Zinn, Joseph Schumpeter, Khartoum Gordon, lateral thinking, lone genius, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, public intellectual, sceptred isle, Scramble for Africa, Seymour Hersh, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, traveling salesman, W. E. B. Du Bois, work culture

The great imperial experience of the past two hundred years is global and universal; it has implicated every corner of the globe, the colonizer and the colonized together. Because the West acquired world dominance, and because it seems to have completed its trajectory by bringing about “the end of history” as Francis Fukuyama has called it, Westerners have assumed the integrity and the inviolability of their cultural masterpieces, their scholarship, their worlds of discourse; the rest of the world stands petitioning for attention at our windowsill. Yet I believe it is a radical falsification of culture to strip it of its affiliations with its setting, or to pry it away from the terrain it contested or—more to the point of an oppositional strand within Western culture—to deny its real influence.

Underlying these epigonal replications of Matthew Arnold’s exhortations to the significance of culture is the social authority of patriotism, the fortifications of identity brought to us by “our” culture, whereby we can confront the world defiantly and self-confidently; in Francis Fukuyama’s triumphalist proclamation, “we” Americans can see ourselves as realizing the end of history. This is an extremely drastic delimitation of what we have learned about culture—its productivity, its diversity of components, its critical and often contradictory energies, its radically antithetical characteristics, and above all its rich worldliness and complicity with imperial conquest and liberation.

Long a champion of Black nationalism, he always tempered his advocacy with disclaimers and reminders that assertions of ethnic particularity were not enough, just as solidarity without criticism was not enough. There is a great deal of hope to be derived from this if only because, far from being at the end of history, we are in a position to do something about our own present and future history, whether we live inside or outside the metropolitan world. In sum, decolonization is a very complex battle over the course of different political destinies, different histories and geographies, and it is replete with works of the imagination, scholarship and counter-scholarship.


pages: 196 words: 61,981

Blockchain Chicken Farm: And Other Stories of Tech in China's Countryside by Xiaowei Wang

4chan, AI winter, Amazon Web Services, artificial general intelligence, autonomous vehicles, back-to-the-land, basic income, Big Tech, bitcoin, blockchain, business cycle, cloud computing, Community Supported Agriculture, computer vision, COVID-19, cryptocurrency, data science, deep learning, Deng Xiaoping, Didi Chuxing, disruptive innovation, Donald Trump, drop ship, emotional labour, Ethereum, ethereum blockchain, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Garrett Hardin, gig economy, global pandemic, Great Leap Forward, high-speed rail, Huaqiangbei: the electronics market of Shenzhen, China, hype cycle, income inequality, informal economy, information asymmetry, Internet Archive, Internet of things, job automation, Kaizen: continuous improvement, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, land reform, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Menlo Park, multilevel marketing, One Laptop per Child (OLPC), Pearl River Delta, peer-to-peer lending, precision agriculture, QR code, ride hailing / ride sharing, risk tolerance, Salesforce, Satoshi Nakamoto, scientific management, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, Snapchat, SoftBank, software is eating the world, surveillance capitalism, TaskRabbit, tech worker, technological solutionism, the long tail, TikTok, Tragedy of the Commons, universal basic income, vertical integration, Vision Fund, WeWork, Y Combinator, zoonotic diseases

The darkened screen beckons to me, reflecting back like an ancient scrying mirror, a device used for divination, a mirror on which to project all our desires. The future, in perpetuity. One of the gifts of the free market has been precisely that: the delusion that we are free of the past, expanding ever outward into a startling, wild future abetted by the free market, liberalism, and technology. The end of history, as Francis Fukuyama would call it. I have traded a family story, subject to the forces of political will, for a life that changes and moves under economic forces, through the will of financial capital, of Alibaba and Amazon. And it remains to be seen just how the inhabitants of the new socialist countryside will embrace this same free market futurity.


pages: 604 words: 161,455

The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life by Robert Wright

agricultural Revolution, Andrei Shleifer, Apollo 13, Asian financial crisis, British Empire, centre right, cognitive dissonance, cotton gin, double entry bookkeeping, double helix, Easter island, fault tolerance, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Garrett Hardin, George Gilder, global village, Great Leap Forward, invention of gunpowder, invention of movable type, invention of the telegraph, invention of writing, invisible hand, John Nash: game theory, John von Neumann, Marshall McLuhan, Multics, Norbert Wiener, planetary scale, planned obsolescence, pre–internet, profit motive, Ralph Waldo Emerson, random walk, Richard Thaler, rising living standards, Robert Solow, Silicon Valley, social intelligence, social web, Steven Pinker, talking drums, technological determinism, the medium is the message, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, your tax dollars at work, zero-sum game

In the 1960s, one philosopher of history observed that historians “tend to use the term ‘metahistorian’ to mark deviations from normal professional activity in either the law-seeking or the pattern-seeking direction.” Not much has changed since then. The one pattern-seeking work of history to make a big splash over the past two decades—The End of History—was written not by a historian but by a political scientist, Francis Fukuyama. Oddly, pondering laws of history is less deviant behavior for a political scientist than for a historian. Opponents of “metahistory” have often been candid about their motivations. The dedication to Popper’s book reads, “In memory of the countless men and women of all creeds or nations or races who fell victims to the fascist and communist belief in Inexorable Laws of Historical Destiny.”

—Simon Conway Morris, The New York Times Book Review “An extraordinarily insightful and thought-provoking book. . . . Wright does an astonishingly effective job of finding directionality in history, not just over the past few thousand years but over the almost four billion years since the beginning of life on earth.” —Francis Fukuyama, The Wilson Quarterly “A dazzling tour of world history. . . . Although he takes into account the tooth-and-claw battles of nations, the vanished empires, social violence and chaos, the shocks and changes of technology, Mr. Wright finds pattern and meaning in history. We are moving toward connectedness, toward one world. . . .

Fried, Morton (1983) “Tribe to State or State to Tribe in Ancient China,” in Keightley, ed. (1983). Friedman, Thomas (1999) The Lexus and the Olive Tree. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Friedrich, Otto (1986) The End of the World: A History. Fromm International. Fromkin, David (1981) The Independence of Nations. Praeger. Fukuyama, Francis (1993) The End of History and the Last Man. Avon. Gaddis, John L. (1999) “Living in Candlestick Park.” The Atlantic, April, pp. 65–74. Garraty, John A., and Peter Gay, eds. (1981) The Columbia History of the World. Harper and Row. Garsoian, Nina (1981) “Early Byzantium,” in Garraty and Gay, eds. (1981). Gernet, Jacques (1962) Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276.


pages: 1,015 words: 170,908

Empire by Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri

"hyperreality Baudrillard"~20 OR "Baudrillard hyperreality", Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, colonial rule, conceptual framework, disinformation, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global pandemic, global village, Haight Ashbury, Herbert Marcuse, informal economy, invisible hand, late capitalism, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, New Urbanism, open borders, post-Fordism, post-industrial society, postindustrial economy, scientific management, Scramble for Africa, social intelligence, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, union organizing, urban planning, W. E. B. Du Bois

For Los Angeles, see Mike Davis, City of Quartz (London: Verso, 1990), pp. 221–263. For Sa˜o Paulo, see Teresa Caldeira, ‘‘Fortified Enclaves: The New Urban Segregation,’’ Public Culture, no. 8 (1996); 303–328. 9. See Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle, trans. Donald Nicholson-Smith (New York: Zone Books, 1994). 10. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 11. ‘‘We have watched the war machine . . . set its sights on a new type of enemy, no longer another State, or even another regime, but ‘l’ennemi quelconque’ [the whatever enemy].’’ Gilles Deleuze and Feĺix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, trans.

The liberal notion of the public, the I M P E R I A L S O V E R E I G N T Y 189 place outside where we act in the presence ofothers, has been both universalized (because we are always now under the gaze ofothers, monitored by safety cameras) and sublimated or de-actualized in the virtual spaces ofthe spectacle. The end ofthe outside is the end ofliberal politics. Finally, there is no longer an outside also in a military sense. When Francis Fukuyama claims that the contemporary historical passage is defined by the end ofhistory, he means that the era of major conflicts has come to an end: sovereign power will no longer confront its Other and no longer face its outside, but rather will progressively expand its boundaries to envelop the entire globe as its proper domain.10 The history ofimperialist, interimperialist, and anti-imperialist wars is over.

On the one hand, in this situation all the forces of society tend to be activated as productive forces; but on the other hand, these same forces are submitted to a global domination that is continually more abstract and thus blind to the sense of the apparatuses of the reproduction of life. In postmodernity, the ‘‘end of history’’ is effectively imposed, but in such a way that at the same time paradoxically all the powers of humanity are called on to contribute to the global reproduction of labor, society, and life. In this framework, politics (when this is understood as administration and management) loses all its transparency.


pages: 605 words: 169,366

The World's Banker: A Story of Failed States, Financial Crises, and the Wealth and Poverty of Nations by Sebastian Mallaby

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, Asian financial crisis, bank run, battle of ideas, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bretton Woods, capital controls, clean water, Dr. Strangelove, Dutch auction, export processing zone, failed state, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentleman farmer, guns versus butter model, Hernando de Soto, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, land reform, land tenure, lateral thinking, low interest rates, market bubble, Martin Wolf, microcredit, oil shock, Oklahoma City bombing, old-boy network, Paul Samuelson, plutocrats, purchasing power parity, radical decentralization, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, special economic zone, structural adjustment programs, the new new thing, trade liberalization, traveling salesman, War on Poverty, Westphalian system, Yom Kippur War

The family’s political heroes were Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt. Paul won a full scholarship to Cornell, and he lived as an undergraduate in the Telluride House, a hothouse for gifted students. Again, it was an experience that several future neoconservatives shared. Francis Fukuyama, who famously celebrated the end of history in his 1989 essay, was another Telluride product, as was the maverick presidential candidate Alan Keyes; Wolfowitz later recruited Fukuyama and Keyes to work for him at the State Department. The reigning spirit at Telluride was a charismatic young professor named Allan Bloom, later author of The Closing of the American Mind and the inspiration for the title character in Saul Bellow’s novel Ravelstein.

As usual, shifting intellectual fashions within the Bank are echoed outside its walls. In the aftermath of the Iraq war, the limits to outsiders’ ability to remake political attitudes have been emphasized by commentators of all stripes—including some whose pedigree make pessimism surprising. In a book published in 2004, Francis Fukuyama, the former Wolfowitz protégé who had proclaimed history’s end, let loose an antitriumphalist broadside. The idea that outsiders can build institutions in chaotic countries misunderstands what institutions are, Fukuyama wrote. They are the bundles of attitudes, of shared learning and assumptions.


pages: 281 words: 69,107

Belt and Road: A Chinese World Order by Bruno Maçães

"World Economic Forum" Davos, active measures, Admiral Zheng, autonomous vehicles, Branko Milanovic, BRICs, cloud computing, deindustrialization, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, Donald Trump, energy security, European colonialism, eurozone crisis, export processing zone, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global supply chain, global value chain, high-speed rail, industrial cluster, industrial robot, Internet of things, Kenneth Rogoff, land reform, liberal world order, Malacca Straits, middle-income trap, one-China policy, Pearl River Delta, public intellectual, smart cities, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, subprime mortgage crisis, trade liberalization, trade route, zero-sum game

What their arguments show is that, far from suffering from a dearth of alternatives, we have too many universal values to choose from and they are evidently not compatible or even fully commensurable between them. When discussing world politics today, we often revert to one of two models. The first, popularized by Francis Fukuyama, sees the whole world converging to a European or Western political framework, after which no further historical development is possible. Every country or region is measured by the time it will still take to reach this final destination, but all doubts and debates about where we are heading have been fundamentally resolved.

After the completion of the project, a Chinese company operating a port might modestly slow transit to send a coercive signal about China’s control over a target country’s trade flows.24 The idea of a “harmonious world” or a “community of shared destiny” may appeal to the pursuit of peace, cooperation and respect for cultural difference, but when—in a curious imitation of the Western concept of the end of history—it is presented as the inevitable endpoint of historical development, it becomes uncompromising and oppressive. Once a “community of shared destiny” has been advanced as the only correct option, the temptation is to start identifying disharmonious elements, those who, as the Chinese authorities like to put it, still harbor a Cold War mentality or a zero-sum approach to world politics.

Mei Xinyu, “The Gwadar Port Disillusion,” Caijing, December 19, 2016. 12. Nadège Rolland, China’s Eurasian Century? Political and Strategic Implications of the Belt and Road Initiative (National Bureau of Asian Research, 2017), p. 113. 13. Bruno Maçães, “Russia’s New Energy Gamble,” Cairo Review, 2018. 14. Nadine Godehardt, “No End of History: A Chinese Alternative Concept of International Order”, SWP Research Paper, Berlin, January 2016. 15. Wang Yiwei, The Belt and Road Initiative: What China Will Offer the World in Its Rise (New World Press, 2016), p. 1. 16. See Zhao Tingyang, “Rethinking Empire from a Chinese Concept ‘All-under-Heaven’ (Tian-xia, 天下),” Social Identities, January 2006, pp. 29–41. 17.


pages: 239 words: 56,531

The Secret War Between Downloading and Uploading: Tales of the Computer as Culture Machine by Peter Lunenfeld

Albert Einstein, Andrew Keen, anti-globalists, Apple II, Berlin Wall, British Empire, Brownian motion, Buckminster Fuller, Burning Man, business cycle, business logic, butterfly effect, Charles Babbage, computer age, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, don't be evil, Douglas Engelbart, Douglas Engelbart, Dynabook, East Village, Edward Lorenz: Chaos theory, Fairchild Semiconductor, Fall of the Berlin Wall, folksonomy, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, Free Software Foundation, Grace Hopper, gravity well, Guggenheim Bilbao, Herman Kahn, Honoré de Balzac, Howard Rheingold, Ian Bogost, invention of movable type, Isaac Newton, Ivan Sutherland, Jacquard loom, Jane Jacobs, Jeff Bezos, John Markoff, John von Neumann, Jon Ronson, Kickstarter, Mark Zuckerberg, Marshall McLuhan, Mercator projection, Metcalfe’s law, Mother of all demos, mutually assured destruction, Neal Stephenson, Nelson Mandela, Network effects, new economy, Norbert Wiener, PageRank, pattern recognition, peer-to-peer, planetary scale, plutocrats, post-materialism, Potemkin village, RFID, Richard Feynman, Richard Stallman, Robert Metcalfe, Robert X Cringely, Schrödinger's Cat, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, seminal paper, SETI@home, Silicon Valley, Skype, social bookmarking, social software, spaced repetition, Steve Ballmer, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, technological determinism, Ted Nelson, the built environment, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the medium is the message, Thomas L Friedman, Turing machine, Turing test, urban planning, urban renewal, Vannevar Bush, walkable city, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, William Shockley: the traitorous eight

I adopt this notion of long and short decades from the ways in which historians have proposed that the nineteenth was a long century, from the French Revolution in 1789 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, and that the twentieth was a short one, running from 1914 to 1989. Likewise we can say that in the United States, the 1960s were a long decade, lasting from 1957 to 1973 (roughly the publication of Jack Kerouac’s On the Road to the triple shocks of the OPEC oil embargo, Watergate, and the loss in Vietnam). 2. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 3. For a sterling analysis of New Economy hubris, see Thomas Frank, One Market under God: Extreme Capitalism, Market Populism, and the End of Economic Democracy (New York: Doubleday, 2000). 4. This figure comes from Lawrence Haverty Jr., senior vice president of State Street Research, quoted in Rachel Konrad, “Assessing the Carnage: Sizing Up the Market’s Swift Demise,” CNET News, March 8, 2001, available at <http://news. com.com/2009-1017-253125-2.html?

The post-1989 period contained a multitude of features, but one unifying construct was the belief that after the fall of the Berlin Wall and then the Soviet Union itself, not just Communism, but all the countervailing forces against market capitalism were vanquished, and not just for the moment but literally for all time. The Market with a capital M was the grail at the end of Francis Fukayama’s treatise The End of History.2 The Market was the solution for all questions, the Market would bring peace and prosperity, and would free itself from the tyranny of the business cycle, evolving into an entirely invisible, frictionless, perpetual motion machine that would take the name of the New Economy (again with capital letters).3 This immediate post-1989 period coincided with the most utopian phase of the culture machine: the euphoria of the World Wide Web’s first Wild, Wild West phase.

., 9 Difference engine, 149 Digg, 34 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), 71, 149, 153, 163, 170 Digital video discs (DVDs), 2, 7–8, 15, 58 Digital video recorders (DVRs), 2, 7, 15, 23, 181n3 Disco, 63 Disney Concert Hall, 39 DIY (do-it-yourself) movements, 67–70 203 Dot-com bubble, 79, 145, 174 Doubleclick, 177 Downloading, xiii–xiv, 180nn1,2 animal kingdom and, 1 bespoke futures and, 97, 123, 132, 138 best use and, 13–14 commercial networks and, 4–5 communication devices and, 15–16 cultural hierarchy of, 1–2 culture machine and, 143, 168 dangers of overabundance and, 7–10 defined, 1 diabetic responses to, 3–5 disrupting flow and, 23–24 figure/ground and, xvi, 42–43, 46, 102 Freedom software and, 22–23 habits of mind and, 9–10 humans and, 1–2 information overload and, 22, 149 info-triage and, xvi, 20–23, 121, 132, 143 as intake, 5 mindfulness and, xvi, 14, 17, 20–24, 27–29, 42, 77, 79, 123, 129, 183n6 patio potato and, 9–10, 13 peer-to-peer networks and, 15, 54, 92, 116, 126 stickiness and, 13–17, 20–23, 27–29, 184n15 surfing and, 20, 80, 180n2 television and, 2 unimodernism and, 41–42, 49, 54–57, 66–67, 76–77 viral distribution and, 30, 56, 169 wants vs. needs and, 13, 37, 57 Web n.0 and, 79, 82–83, 86–87 Duchamp, Marcel, 44, 48, 94 Dymaxion map, 73 Dynabook, 161–162, 196n17 Dynamic equilibrium, 117–120 EBay, 68 Eckert, J. Presper, 148 INDEX Efficiency, 21–24, 98, 103 8 Man (Hirai and Kuwata), 108 8–track tapes, 2 89/11, xvi, 97, 100–102, 105, 130 Einstein, Albert, 49–50, 186n4 Eisenstein, Sergei, 31 52, 88 El Lissitzky, 45 Eminent Victorians (Strachey), 19 End of History, The (Fukayama), 97 Engelbart, Douglas, 144, 157–167 ENIAC computer, 148 Enlightenment Electrified, xvi, 47 bespoke futures and, 129–139 determinism and, 131–132 Nietzschean self-satisfaction and, 132 religion and, 130–135, 138 secular culture and, 133–134 technology and, 131–133, 136–139 Entrepreneurs, 99, 109, 156–157, 174 Environmental impact reports (EIRs), 79–80 Ethernet, 161 Etsy.com, 68 Evans, Walker, 41–42 Everyone Is a Designer!


pages: 212 words: 68,690

Independent Diplomat: Dispatches From an Unaccountable Elite by Carne Ross

Abraham Maslow, barriers to entry, blood diamond, carbon tax, cuban missile crisis, Doha Development Round, energy security, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Global Witness, income inequality, information security, iterative process, meta-analysis, oil-for-food scandal, one-China policy, Peace of Westphalia, Pearl River Delta, stakhanovite, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Tragedy of the Commons, zero-sum game

As liberalism evolved in the twentieth century (and some called it neo-liberalism), it argued that cooperation and collective security in a multipolar system of democratic states and strong international institutions would best serve the interests of stability (echoing Kant’s “perpetual peace”). Many contemporary liberals viewed the end of the Cold War (the realist paradigm of a bipolar system) as the ultimate confirmation of liberalism as the only viable mode of political life. Champion among such thinkers was Francis Fukuyama who, in his seminal book The End of History and the Last Man, argued that political history had come to a close with the death of the Cold War and, by default, the triumph of liberalism. Not only will liberal democracy and capitalism spread through an ever-globalising world, but also such a system would be ideal.

Simplification, though tempting, must inevitably be inaccurate and wrong and is therefore dangerous. Academics are as guilty of this thought-crime as the politicians, providing glib generalisations with which we can organise our thoughts and dinner-party arguments. The absurdity of theses such as “the clash of civilizations” or the “end of history” (though the latter book admits to a more nuanced analysis) is only revealed at the point that any situation, anywhere, is examined using such templates. 8. At a more prosaic level, contemporary diplomacy is deeply unbalanced and unfair. Its practice and machinery are dominated by rich and powerful states, whose political and economic power is reinforced and supplemented by their less-recognised diplomatic power.


pages: 208 words: 67,582

What About Me?: The Struggle for Identity in a Market-Based Society by Paul Verhaeghe

"there is no alternative" (TINA), Alan Greenspan, autism spectrum disorder, Berlin Wall, call centre, capitalist realism, cognitive dissonance, deskilling, epigenetics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gregor Mendel, income inequality, invisible hand, jimmy wales, job satisfaction, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Louis Pasteur, market fundamentalism, meritocracy, Milgram experiment, mirror neurons, new economy, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, post-industrial society, Richard Feynman, Silicon Valley, Stanford prison experiment, stem cell, The Spirit Level, ultimatum game, working poor

But whenever a number of religions or ideologies laid claim to being the one true belief, wars broke out in the name of faith or reason. Since that time, secular religions have followed hot on each other’s heels, each with their promise of a new and better world: socialism, communism, fascism, and, most recently, liberal democracy. Francis Fukuyama’s proclamation of the latter as marking ‘the end of history’ again conjures up the idea of a ladder with a substandard beginning and a glorious end. Once again, it’s not hard to see the legacy of Christianity in these different ideologies: the better society, Heaven on Earth, is always located in the future, and requires a great deal of effort and sacrifice.


pages: 210 words: 65,833

This Is Not Normal: The Collapse of Liberal Britain by William Davies

Airbnb, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Cambridge Analytica, central bank independence, centre right, Chelsea Manning, coronavirus, corporate governance, COVID-19, credit crunch, data science, deindustrialization, disinformation, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, double entry bookkeeping, Edward Snowden, fake news, family office, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, ghettoisation, gig economy, global pandemic, global village, illegal immigration, Internet of things, Jeremy Corbyn, late capitalism, Leo Hollis, liberal capitalism, loadsamoney, London Interbank Offered Rate, mass immigration, moral hazard, Neil Kinnock, Northern Rock, old-boy network, post-truth, postnationalism / post nation state, precariat, prediction markets, quantitative easing, recommendation engine, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, sentiment analysis, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Slavoj Žižek, statistical model, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, surveillance capitalism, technoutopianism, The Chicago School, Thorstein Veblen, transaction costs, universal basic income, W. E. B. Du Bois, web of trust, WikiLeaks, Yochai Benkler

Firstly, the political plausibility of Brexit increased as a direct response to Tony Blair’s dogmatic assumption that European integration was a historical destiny, which encompassed the UK. No doubt a figure such as Blair would have discovered a messianic agenda under any historical circumstances. But given that he gained power specifically in the mid-’90s, he was one palpable victim of the fin de siècle ideology (stereotyped by Francis Fukuyama’send of history’ thesis, but also present in Anthony Giddens’s ‘Third Way’) that the world was programmed to converge around a single political system. Neoconservative faith in violent ‘democratisation’ was Blair’s worst indulgence on this front, but a view of European unification (and expansion) as inevitable was partially responsible for inciting the Tory reaction within Westminster.


pages: 225 words: 11,355

Financial Market Meltdown: Everything You Need to Know to Understand and Survive the Global Credit Crisis by Kevin Mellyn

Alan Greenspan, asset-backed security, bank run, banking crisis, Bernie Madoff, bond market vigilante , bonus culture, Bretton Woods, business cycle, collateralized debt obligation, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cuban missile crisis, deal flow, disintermediation, diversification, fiat currency, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, financial intermediation, fixed income, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, global reserve currency, Greenspan put, Home mortgage interest deduction, inverted yield curve, Isaac Newton, joint-stock company, junk bonds, Kickstarter, liquidity trap, London Interbank Offered Rate, long peace, low interest rates, margin call, market clearing, mass immigration, Money creation, money market fund, moral hazard, mortgage tax deduction, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, paradox of thrift, pattern recognition, pension reform, pets.com, Phillips curve, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, profit maximization, proprietary trading, pushing on a string, reserve currency, risk tolerance, risk-adjusted returns, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, South Sea Bubble, statistical model, Suez canal 1869, systems thinking, tail risk, The Great Moderation, the long tail, the new new thing, the payments system, too big to fail, value at risk, very high income, War on Poverty, We are all Keynesians now, Y2K, yield curve

The state had clearly failed to deliver prosperity and had destroyed the liberty of billions and the lives of millions in the process. Outside of its strongholds in the universities and cultural elites of the rich capitalist world, state socialism was universally seen to be an abject failure. THE END OF HISTORY In 1992, a renowned scholar published a book that stayed on the bestseller list for months. Francis Fukuyama based The End of History and the Last Man on a lecture he gave in 1989 when state socialism began to crumble in Eastern Europe. He argued persuasively that ‘‘liberal democracy remains [after the fall of communism] the only coherent political aspiration that spans different regions and cultures around the globe.

The triumph of Margaret Thatcher in Britain and Ronald Reagan in the United States during the 1980s had started the pendulum of history swinging back to the classical liberalism of Bagehot’s Britain. The triumph of the AngloAmerican model of business and finance appeared complete and final. Conclusion REAL HISTORY DOES NOT END Of course, real history as we have seen is always a series of accidents. It never really comes to an end. Instead of the end of history, Fukuyama was really observing a turnover in the long, never complete grudge match between free markets and those people and institutions that seek to suppress and manipulate markets through political power. The game continued, and in 2008, the other team—the left wing of the Democratic Party, not its basically mainstream membership as a whole—was able to turn a very scary market panic that had nothing to do with the fundamentals of capitalism into a big score for a return to state control of the economy.

.), 20, 28, 42, 54–55, 72, 82, 88–89, 93–97, 120, 167, 169 Fannie Mae, 57, 133, 142 FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation), 16, 128–129, 131–132, 159, 163 federal funds rate, 146 Federal Home Loan Banks, 56, 142 Federal Reserve, 6, 11, 13–14, 44, 84, 86, 102–110, 123–124, 128, 132, 140, 152, 156, 159, 162–163, 186 Federal Reserve Act of 1913, 103–104, 124 Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 105 Federal Reserve Board of Governors, 104, 107 Ferguson, Niall, concept of ‘‘Chimerica,’’ 185; on John Law, 92; on Medicis, 79; on the Rothschilds, 88; Fiat money, 155, 173, 184 FICO scores, 63, 65, 68 financial economy, ix, 1–5, 8, 150, 174 financial innovation, 58, 60, 74 Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989 (FIRREA), 132 financial instruments, 19–20, 64; customization, 65, 150; standardization of, 66; risks, 47, 49, 52; types of, 29–31; 32–40, 42–45, 54–55; uses of, 31–32 financial markets, x, xx, 19–20, 22, 24–25, 29, 40, 45, 75, 79–80, 88, 90, 99, 101, 119, 127, 139–141, 160, 165, 167, 176, 180, 186, 189 First National Bank of Boston, 143 First National City Bank of New York, 145 fixed income, 43, 48, 52, 67, 93, 153 floating currencies and FX market, 155 foreign exchange, x, 55, 72, 93–95, 125, 149, 156 401(k) plans, 122, 157 fractional reserves, 151 Freddie Mac, 57 Friedman, Tom, World Is Flat, The, 184 Fukuyama, Francis, End of History and the Last Man, The, 182–183 ‘‘futures,’’ 54–55 Galbraith, John Kenneth, Affluent Society, The, 153 Garn-St. Germain Act, 130–131 GDP (Gross Domestic Product), 6, 14, 27, 133, 169, 171, 188 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 115 Genoa and origins of banking and finance, 77–79 Glass-Steagall, 141, 149, 159 gold, xiv–xvi, xix, 8, 12, 19, 34, 83–84, 106, 147, 149, 154–155, 184 Goldman Sachs, 159 Goldsmiths, 83 gold standard, 94–98, 108, 115, 125–126, 137–139, 155, 162 Graham-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999, 159 Great Inflation, 130, 152, 154, 156 Great Moderation, 140–141, 152 Greenberg, Maurice ‘‘Hank,’’ and AIG, 138, Index Greenspan, Alan, 101, 111, 140, 157 ‘‘Greenspan put,’’ 101, 111 Gresham, Sir Thomas, 80, 82 GSE (Government Sponsored Enterprises), 57, 133, 142, 176, 186 Health Care, 51, 162, 187–189 Hedge Funds, 25–27, 65 High Street (UK equivalent for Main Street), 91 High Street Bank, 89.


pages: 333 words: 76,990

The Long Good Buy: Analysing Cycles in Markets by Peter Oppenheimer

Alan Greenspan, asset allocation, banking crisis, banks create money, barriers to entry, behavioural economics, benefit corporation, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, book value, Bretton Woods, business cycle, buy and hold, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, collective bargaining, computer age, credit crunch, data science, debt deflation, decarbonisation, diversification, dividend-yielding stocks, equity premium, equity risk premium, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial engineering, financial innovation, fixed income, Flash crash, foreign exchange controls, forward guidance, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, gentrification, geopolitical risk, George Akerlof, Glass-Steagall Act, household responsibility system, housing crisis, index fund, invention of the printing press, inverted yield curve, Isaac Newton, James Watt: steam engine, Japanese asset price bubble, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, Kondratiev cycle, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, liquidity trap, Live Aid, low interest rates, market bubble, Mikhail Gorbachev, mortgage debt, negative equity, Network effects, new economy, Nikolai Kondratiev, Nixon shock, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, oil shock, open economy, Phillips curve, price stability, private sector deleveraging, Productivity paradox, quantitative easing, railway mania, random walk, Richard Thaler, risk free rate, risk tolerance, risk-adjusted returns, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, savings glut, secular stagnation, Shenzhen special economic zone , Simon Kuznets, South Sea Bubble, special economic zone, stocks for the long run, tail risk, Tax Reform Act of 1986, technology bubble, The Great Moderation, too big to fail, total factor productivity, trade route, tulip mania, yield curve

Although these reforms were aimed at reversing the bureaucratic structure that had become a major constraint to economic progress, now they are often seen as important catalysts in the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and, as such, the end of the Cold War and the start of the modern era of globalisation. In the summer of 1989, just a few months before the collapse of the Berlin Wall, as the pressures on the Eastern European communist states intensified, Francis Fukuyama, a US State Department official, wrote a paper titled ‘The End of History’ where he argued, ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’4 The paper seemed to capture the zeitgeist.

This had already been achieved in 1967 with Our World, which had used satellites to beam to a global audience of 400,000 to 700,000 people, the biggest ever at the time, and included appearances and performances from Pablo Picasso, Maria Callas, and the famous UK entry, The Beatles, who performed ‘All You Need Is Love’ for the first time. 4 See Fukuyama, F. (1989). The end of history? The National Interest, 16, 3–18. 5 http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/16/newsid_2519000/2519013.stm 6 The Maastricht Treaty, officially known as the Treaty on European Union, marked the beginning of ‘a new stage in the process of creating an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe’.

ECB [online]. Available at https://www.ecb.europa.eu/explainers/tell-me-more/html/25_years_maastricht.en.html Frehen, R. G. P., Goetzmann, W. N., and Rouwenhorst, K. G. (2013). New evidence on the first financial bubble. Journal of Financial Economics, 108(3), 585–607. Fukuyama, F. (1989). The end of history? The National Interest, 16, 3–18. Gagnon, J., Raskin, M., Remache, J., and Sack, B. (2011). The financial market effects of the Federal Reserve's large-scale asset purchases. International Journal of Central Banking, 7(1), 3–43. Galbraith, J. K. (1955). The great crash, 1929. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.


pages: 276 words: 78,061

Worth Dying For: The Power and Politics of Flags by Tim Marshall

anti-communist, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Black Lives Matter, British Empire, colonial rule, Donald Trump, drone strike, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, It's morning again in America, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Mahatma Gandhi, Malacca Straits, mass immigration, megacity, Neil Armstrong, Nelson Mandela, Ronald Reagan, sceptred isle, Scramble for Africa, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, trade route, white picket fence

The relatively new concept of European identity finds itself battling with national identities and symbols that have been forged over centuries. Flags, and the importance nation states and peoples attach to them, give the lie to the famous theory of the American thinker Francis Fukuyama in his The End of History and the Last Man, published in 1992. Dr Fukuyama argued that the fall of the Berlin Wall was not ‘just the end of the Cold War but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’. This damaging idea continues to influence generations of foreign-policy thinkers who appear oblivious to the patterns of history and the political direction of Russia, the Middle East, China, swathes of Central Asia and elsewhere.

This damaging idea continues to influence generations of foreign-policy thinkers who appear oblivious to the patterns of history and the political direction of Russia, the Middle East, China, swathes of Central Asia and elsewhere. It is damaging because it causes some people to assume that such a thing as the end of history is possible, and that mankind’s ‘ideological evolution’ must end in liberal democracy. This is as wrong as the Marxist theory of the inevitability of the ‘law of history’ leading to a Communist utopia. The problem with Dr Fukuyama’s and Dr Marx’s theories are that they come into contact with real people. In Dr Fukuyama’s case they have helped foster the complacent idea that what the liberal democracies have is inevitable and everlasting.


pages: 281 words: 78,317

But What if We're Wrong? Thinking About the Present as if It Were the Past by Chuck Klosterman

a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, British Empire, citizen journalism, cosmological constant, dark matter, data science, Easter island, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, George Santayana, Gerolamo Cardano, ghettoisation, Golden age of television, Hans Moravec, Higgs boson, Howard Zinn, Isaac Newton, Joan Didion, Large Hadron Collider, Nick Bostrom, non-fiction novel, obamacare, pre–internet, public intellectual, Ralph Nader, Ray Kurzweil, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, Stephen Hawking, TED Talk, the medium is the message, the scientific method, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, too big to fail, Y2K

[2]When I spoke with Horgan, he’d recently completed his (considerably less controversial) fifth book, The End of War, a treatise arguing against the assumption that war is an inescapable component of human nature. The embryo for this idea came from a conversation he’d had two decades prior, conducted while working on The End of Science. It was an interview with Francis Fukuyama, the political scientist best known for his 1989 essay “The End of History?” The title of the essay is deceptive, since Fukuyama was mostly asserting that liberal capitalist democracies were going to take over the world. It was an economic argument that (thus far) has not happened. But what specifically appalled Horgan was Fukuyama’s assertion about how a problem-free society would operate.

Hyde (Stevenson), 143–44 dreaming content of dreams, 142–43 dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 141–42 “Dream Argument,” 137n lucid, 137, 141 meaningless nature of, 138–39 and near-death experiences, 141–42 Dress, The (viral phenomenon), 146–47 dying and sleep, relationship between, 141–42 Dylan, Bob, 74–77, 86–87, 230 Earth, location in Milky Way, 120 earthquakes, 258–60 echolocation sonar, 254 Ed Sullivan Show, The, 60, 66 Egan, Jennifer, 52 Eggers, Dave, 52 Ehrlich, Paul, 14 Einstein, Albert, 4, 112, 114 elections, US Ohio’s importance in, 196–97 political polarization since 9/11, 198–99 presidential race of 2000, 197–98, 216 See also voting electronic dance music (EDM), 79 EmDrive rocket thruster, 119–20 Empire (TV show), 170 “End of History?, The” (Fukuyama), 226–27 End of Science, The (Horgan), 223–24, 226 End of War, The (Horgan), 226–27 Entourage (TV show), 170 equality, 212–14 Esquire, 246 E.T. (film), 182 “Ethicist, The” (New York Times Magazine column), 255 Everest, Mount, 183 extraterrestrials, music for, 83–84 fact-checking, 154n false memories, 150–51 Fight Club (Palahniuk), 53 film industry, 28–30, 90, 227, 243–45 financial crisis of 2008, 41 First Amendment rights, 211–12 flawed assumptions, 93–94, 185–86 fleeting popularity, 23–24 Foer, Jonathan Safran, 47 Fomenko, Anatoly, 135 football college level, 191–93 comparative risks in other sports, 183 dangerous nature of, 179–80, 185 future of, 178–82 hypothetical scenario of its decline, 180 National Football League (NFL), 180–81, 182–83 safety modifications envisioned, 181 silo analogy, 184–85 forces fundamental vs. emergent, 4 gravity, 3–7 Fourteenth Amendment rights, 220 fox vs. hedgehog, 199–201 Franzen, Jonathan, 27, 36, 261 free speech, limitations to, 211–12 Freed, Alan, 59 freedom, 214 Freud, Sigmund, 138 Frost, Robert, 93 Fukuyama, Francis, 226–27 future, thinking about, 252–53 Galileo, 5, 100, 117–18 Gaussian curve, 22n Gazzaniga, Michael, 203n Gehry, Frank, 90 genius, recognizing, 23–24, 73 Gibbon, Edward, 207 Gillett, Charlie, 14 Gioia, Ted, 77–79 Gladwell, Malcolm, 177–79, 181 Glass, Stephen, 154n global politics, 15, 17 God and the simulation hypothesis, 124–27 Gone Girl (Flynn), 53 “good job” response to art, 188–89 Goodman, John, 174 Gore, Al, 197–98 gorillas, 255–56 GQ, 242–43 Grand Theft Auto (video game), 128 Grant, Ulysses S., 206 gravity Aristotle’s ideas about, 5, 101 author’s knowledge of, 3 evolution of ideas about, 3–7 temperature analogy, 4n greatness, 51n Greene, Brian, 3–4, 101–8, 112–14, 124–25 Gross, David, 104n Gumbel, Bryant, 185 Halley’s Comet, 136 Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps, 156–57 Harbaugh, Jim, 185 Hard Rain (album), 75 Hardcore History (podcast), 201–3 Harrison, George, 84n heliocentrism, 117 Hellman, Martin, 260 Hemingway, Ernest, 93 Hendrix, Jimi, 60 “Here Comes the Sun” (song), 84 Hero with a Thousand Faces, The (Campbell), 74n hero’s journey, 74 Hersh, Seymour, 151–53 Herzen, Alexander, 201 Hidden Reality, The (Greene), 103 Higgs boson (“God particle”), 130–31 historical figure game, 155–56 history confirming, 151, 153–57, 203–5 revisionist, 233–35 History: Fiction or Science?


pages: 264 words: 74,688

Imperial Legacies by Jeremy Black;

affirmative action, British Empire, centre right, colonial rule, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Great Leap Forward, imperial preference, Jeremy Corbyn, Khartoum Gordon, mass immigration, Monroe Doctrine, out of africa, Scramble for Africa, Suez crisis 1956, transatlantic slave trade

Westermann, Hitler’s Ostkrieg and the Indian Wars: Comparing Genocide and Conquest (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016). 4 On “our disregard of the Boer War,” Matthew Parris, “Forgotten Wars,” Times, April 4, 2018. 5 David Edgerton, The Rise and Fall of the British Nation: A Twentieth-Century History (London: Allen Lane, 2018). 6 Bruce D. Graham, Hindu Nationalism and Indian Politics: The Origins and Development of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 7 For this concept, see Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (spring 1989): 2–18. 8 Henry Chauncy, Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire (London, 1700), p. 1. 9 Judith M. Brown, “Epilogue,” in The Oxford History of the British Empire: IV: The Twentieth Century, ed. Brown and Wm R. Louis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 710. 10 Karim Bejjit, English Colonial Texts on Tangier, 1661–1684: Imperialism and the Politics of Resistance (Farnham: Ashgate, 2015). 11 P.


pages: 257 words: 77,612

The Rebel and the Kingdom: The True Story of the Secret Mission to Overthrow the North Korean Regime by Bradley Hope

Airbnb, battle of ideas, bitcoin, blockchain, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, COVID-19, cryptocurrency, digital map, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Great Leap Forward, Jeff Bezos, Kickstarter, moral hazard, Nelson Mandela, off-the-grid, operational security, Potemkin village, restrictive zoning, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, TED Talk, uranium enrichment, WikiLeaks

Surely once people heard the details and saw the pictures, as he had, policy makers in Washington and others with influence would begin to act, he declared to Nakanishi. Something was different about the cohort of these college roommates in 2002 compared with the irony-steeped Gen X generation that had come before them. Ten years earlier, Francis Fukuyama had published his infamous book The End of History, arguing that with the breakup of the Soviet Union liberal democracy had triumphed. But just the prior year, two weeks into their first semester at Yale, Adrian and Nakanishi had witnessed the world change before their eyes when Islamic jihadists crashed planes into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon.


pages: 859 words: 204,092

When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Rise of the Middle Kingdom by Martin Jacques

Admiral Zheng, An Inconvenient Truth, Asian financial crisis, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Bob Geldof, Bretton Woods, BRICs, British Empire, classic study, credit crunch, Dava Sobel, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, discovery of the americas, Doha Development Round, energy security, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, flying shuttle, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global reserve currency, global supply chain, Great Leap Forward, illegal immigration, income per capita, invention of gunpowder, James Watt: steam engine, joint-stock company, Kenneth Rogoff, land reform, land tenure, lateral thinking, Malacca Straits, Martin Wolf, Meghnad Desai, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, new economy, New Urbanism, one-China policy, open economy, Pearl River Delta, pension reform, price stability, purchasing power parity, reserve currency, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Scramble for Africa, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, special drawing rights, special economic zone, spinning jenny, Spread Networks laid a new fibre optics cable between New York and Chicago, the scientific method, Thomas L Friedman, trade liberalization, urban planning, Washington Consensus, Westphalian system, Xiaogang Anhui farmers, zero-sum game

For a discussion on the fundamental importance of cultural difference in the era of globalization, see Stuart Hall, ‘A Different Light’, Lecture to Prince Claus Fund Conference, Rotterdam, 12 December 2001. 32 . Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), Chapters 4-5. 33 . Chris Patten, East and West: China, Power, and the Future of East Asia (London: Times Books, 1998), p. 166. 34 . Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, summer 1989. See also for example, Edward Luttwak, Turbo-Capitalism: Winners and Losers in the Global Economy (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998), p. 25. 35 . John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), for example Chapters 2, 6, 12, Epilogue. 36 .

The significance of this debate to a world in which the developing nations are increasingly influential is far-reaching: if their end-point is similar to the West, or, to put it another way, Western-style modernity, then the new world is unlikely to be so different from the one we inhabit now, because China, India, Indonesia and Brazil, to take four examples, will differ little in their fundamental characteristics from the West. This was the future envisaged by Francis Fukuyama, who predicted that the post-Cold War world would be based on a new universalism embodying the Western principles of the free market and democracy.34 If, on the other hand, their ways of being modern diverge significantly, even sharply, from the Western model, then a world in which they predominate is likely to look very different from the present Western-made one in which we still largely live.

., ‘China’s Sunshine Boys’, International Herald Tribune, 7 December 2006 ——‘Democrats and China’, International Herald Tribune, 11- 12 November 2006 ——The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999) ——The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Globalized World in the Twenty-first Century (London: Allen Lane, 2005) Fukuyama, Francis, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, 16, Summer 1989 ——The End of History and the Last Man (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1992) ——Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1995) Gall, Susan, and Irene Natividad, eds, The Asian American Almanac: A Reference Work on Asians in the United States (Detroit: Gale Research, 1995) Gardner, Howard, To Open Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1989) Garrett, Valery M., Chinese Clothing: An Illustrated Guide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) ——Traditional Chinese Clothing in Hong Kong and South China, 1840- 1980 (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1987) Garrison, Jim, America as Empire: Global Leader or Rogue Power?


pages: 772 words: 203,182

What Went Wrong: How the 1% Hijacked the American Middle Class . . . And What Other Countries Got Right by George R. Tyler

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, 8-hour work day, active measures, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, bank run, banking crisis, Basel III, Bear Stearns, behavioural economics, benefit corporation, Black Swan, blood diamond, blue-collar work, Bolshevik threat, bonus culture, British Empire, business cycle, business process, buy and hold, capital controls, Carmen Reinhart, carried interest, cognitive dissonance, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, commoditize, company town, compensation consultant, corporate governance, corporate personhood, corporate raider, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, credit crunch, crony capitalism, crowdsourcing, currency manipulation / currency intervention, David Brooks, David Graeber, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, declining real wages, deindustrialization, Diane Coyle, disruptive innovation, Double Irish / Dutch Sandwich, eurozone crisis, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, fixed income, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, George Gilder, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, Gordon Gekko, Greenspan put, hiring and firing, Ida Tarbell, income inequality, independent contractor, invisible hand, job satisfaction, John Markoff, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, Kenneth Rogoff, labor-force participation, laissez-faire capitalism, lake wobegon effect, light touch regulation, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, manufacturing employment, market clearing, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, minimum wage unemployment, mittelstand, Money creation, moral hazard, Myron Scholes, Naomi Klein, Northern Rock, obamacare, offshore financial centre, Paul Samuelson, Paul Volcker talking about ATMs, pension reform, performance metric, Pershing Square Capital Management, pirate software, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, precariat, price stability, profit maximization, profit motive, prosperity theology / prosperity gospel / gospel of success, purchasing power parity, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, reshoring, Richard Thaler, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Robert Shiller, rolling blackouts, Ronald Reagan, Sand Hill Road, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, South Sea Bubble, sovereign wealth fund, Steve Ballmer, Steve Jobs, stock buybacks, subprime mortgage crisis, The Chicago School, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, too big to fail, transcontinental railway, transfer pricing, trickle-down economics, tulip mania, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, union organizing, Upton Sinclair, upwardly mobile, women in the workforce, working poor, zero-sum game

Henry Olson of the American Enterprise Institute, writing in the Wall Street Journal during 2008, miscast Europe this way: “Germany, Italy, Belgium, and the Netherlands are poorer than the United States, with substantially higher unemployment rates and slower economic growth.”61 France is regularly demonized, including a 2007 editorial in the Washington Post arguing it needs “weaning … from a mind-set that disdains and devalues work.”62 And here is reporter Simon Heffer of London’s Daily Telegraph, cheerleader for the conservative Tory party and critic of continental Europe: “While much of the rest of the World moves on through the application of free-market disciplines, France is demoralized, impoverished, overtaxed, and in despair.”63 A similar verdict was issued in 2001 by law professors Henry Hansmann and Reinier Kraakman, who described stakeholder capitalism and codetermination as “a failed social model.”64 Disciples of Milton Friedman and Ayn Rand, their article was entitled “The End of History for Corporate Law.” Their writing was reminiscent of political scientist Francis Fukuyama’s inaccurate commentary on the end of the Cold War or Oswald Spengler’s much earlier prediction amid the carnage of World War I, in his chilling The Decline of the West, that Western civilization had begun an inevitable downturn. Even the Economist magazine promotes the canard of a sickly Europe, as it did in June 2006 with unfortunate timing, not long before the US housing bubble burst.

Pew found that fewer American youths believe in the superiority of the US culture (37 percent) than youths in Germany, Spain, or Britain who view their own cultures as superior, even amid the European sovereign debt turmoil.23 Reaganomics has caused America’s children to conclude that their nation is no longer the exceptional land of opportunity it was for their grandparents. It has also sparked a much more dramatic reappraisal. Extrapolating these trends, political scientist and author Francis Fukuyama has grown alarmed that the decline of the American middle class poses an existential threat to democracy itself. By widening income disparities and shrinking the middle class that anchors societies, he frets that global integration threatens the very foundation of Western democratic institutions and practices.

Kris Warner, “Protecting Fundamental Labor Rights: Lessons from Canada for the United States,” Center for Economic and Policy Research, August 2012, http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/canada-2012-08.pdf. 51 Kate Bronfenbrenner, “The NLRB Got It Right on Boeing,” Washington Post, June 23, 2011. 52 Thomas Geoghegan, “Infinite Debt,” Harper’s Magazine, April 2009. 53 David Leonhardt, “In Wreckage of Lost Jobs, Lost Power,” New York Times, Jan. 19, 2011. 54 Ken Silverstein, “Labor’s Last Stand,” Harper’s Magazine, July 2009. 55 “The Imperfect Union Bill,” Editorial, Washington Post, May 11, 2009. 56 Harold Meyerson, “Card Check and Gut Check,” Washington Post, May 14, 2009. 57 Silverstein, “Labor’s Last Stand.” 58 Geoghegan, “Infinite Debt.” 59 Ibid. 60 Norbert Häring, “The Economist Who Wanted to Make a Difference,” Handelsblatt, July 27, 2010. 61 Henry Olson, “The GOP’s Time for Choosing,” Wall Street Journal, Jan. 5, 2008. 62 “The ‘Omnipresident’s’ Crucible,” Editorial, Washington Post, Nov. 23, 2007. 63 Quoted by Martin Newland, The Observer, May 6, 2007. 64 Henry Hansmann and Reinier Kraakman, “The End of History for Corporate Law,” 89 Georgetown Law Journal, 439–468, 2001. Also see Irene Lynch Fannon, “The European Social Model of Corporate Governance: Prospects for Success in an Enlarged Europe,” European Union Studies Association Conference, March 30, 2005. 65 “The Financial Crisis: What Next?,” Economist, Sept.18, 2008. 66 Andrew Moravcsik, as quoted in “Suddenly, Europe Looks Pretty Smart,” Dealbook, New York Times, Oct. 20, 2008. 67 Mark Leonard, Why Europe Will Run the 21st Century (New York: Public Affairs, 2005), 70. 68 Mark Leonard, Ibid., 74. 69 “Bankruptcies Eliminate Millions of Jobs,” Berliner Zeitung, Dec. 28, 2009. 70 Mary Bartnik, “They Could Renounce Their RTT to Save Their Jobs,” Le Figaro, July 19, 2010. 71 Floyd Norris, “A Shift in the Export Powerhouses,” New York Times, Feb. 20, 2010. 72 Barry Eichengreen, The European Economy Since 1945 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 380. 73 “France Is Open for Business with Foreign Investors,” Paris: Invest in France Agency, November 2007. 74 Steven Hill, “5 Myths about Sick Old Europe,” Washington Post, Oct. 7, 2007. 75 Julia Werdiger, “To Woo Europeans, McDonald’s Goes Upscale,” New York Times, Aug. 25, 2007. 76 Daniel S.


pages: 361 words: 81,068

The Internet Is Not the Answer by Andrew Keen

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 3D printing, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, Airbnb, AltaVista, Andrew Keen, AOL-Time Warner, augmented reality, Bay Area Rapid Transit, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, bitcoin, Black Swan, Bob Geldof, Boston Dynamics, Burning Man, Cass Sunstein, Charles Babbage, citizen journalism, Clayton Christensen, clean water, cloud computing, collective bargaining, Colonization of Mars, computer age, connected car, creative destruction, cuban missile crisis, data science, David Brooks, decentralized internet, DeepMind, digital capitalism, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, Donald Davies, Downton Abbey, Dr. Strangelove, driverless car, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, fail fast, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, Frederick Winslow Taylor, frictionless, fulfillment center, full employment, future of work, gentrification, gig economy, global village, Google bus, Google Glasses, Hacker Ethic, happiness index / gross national happiness, holacracy, income inequality, index card, informal economy, information trail, Innovator's Dilemma, Internet of things, Isaac Newton, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John Perry Barlow, Joi Ito, Joseph Schumpeter, Julian Assange, Kevin Kelly, Kevin Roose, Kickstarter, Kiva Systems, Kodak vs Instagram, Lean Startup, libertarian paternalism, lifelogging, Lyft, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, Mary Meeker, Metcalfe’s law, military-industrial complex, move fast and break things, Nate Silver, Neil Armstrong, Nelson Mandela, Network effects, new economy, Nicholas Carr, nonsequential writing, Norbert Wiener, Norman Mailer, Occupy movement, packet switching, PageRank, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Patri Friedman, Paul Graham, peer-to-peer, peer-to-peer rental, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, Potemkin village, power law, precariat, pre–internet, printed gun, Project Xanadu, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, reality distortion field, ride hailing / ride sharing, Robert Metcalfe, Robert Solow, San Francisco homelessness, scientific management, Second Machine Age, self-driving car, sharing economy, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Silicon Valley ideology, Skype, smart cities, Snapchat, social web, South of Market, San Francisco, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Steven Levy, Stewart Brand, subscription business, TaskRabbit, tech bro, tech worker, TechCrunch disrupt, Ted Nelson, telemarketer, The future is already here, The Future of Employment, the long tail, the medium is the message, the new new thing, Thomas L Friedman, Travis Kalanick, Twitter Arab Spring, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber for X, uber lyft, urban planning, Vannevar Bush, warehouse robotics, Whole Earth Catalog, WikiLeaks, winner-take-all economy, work culture , working poor, Y Combinator

Back then, with the dramatic destruction of the Wall in November, it was thought that 1989 would be remembered as a watershed year that marked the end of the Cold War and the victory of free-market liberalism. The Stanford University political scientist Francis Fukuyama, assuming that the great debate between capitalists and socialists over the best way to organize industrial society had finally been settled, described the moment that the Wall came down as the “End of History.” But the converse is actually true. Nineteen eighty-nine actually represents the birth of a new period of history, the Networked Computer Age. The Internet has created new values, new wealth, new debates, new elites, new scarcities, new markets, and above all, a new kind of economy.

The answer is history. It’s not just Michael Birch who has seceded from time and space. Fukuyama may have thought that history ended in 1989, but it’s that other world-historic 1989 event, Tim Berners-Lee’s invention of the World Wide Web, that has unintentionally created another, more troubling version of the end of history. “I recently took my 16-year-old daughter Adele to see a section of the Berlin Wall that has been preserved as part of a museum devoted to the division of the city, Germany and Europe. It was a bright Berlin morning,” writes the New York Times columnist Roger Cohen about revisiting the divided Berlin of Erich Mielke and the Stasi.

“The point is that a fundamental aspect of human life—memory—is being altered by the digital revolution,” Freedland warns.20 The savage irony is that the more accurately the Internet remembers everything, the more our memories atrophy. The result is an amnesia about everything except the immediate, the instant, the now, and the me. It’s the end of history as a shared communal memory, the end of our collective engagement with the past and the future. “Once we had a nostalgia for the future,” warns Mark Lilla. “Today we have an amnesia for the present.”21 “The libertarian age,” Lilla argues, “is an illegible age.”22 But this isn’t quite right, either.


pages: 561 words: 87,892

Losing Control: The Emerging Threats to Western Prosperity by Stephen D. King

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Admiral Zheng, Alan Greenspan, asset-backed security, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Bretton Woods, BRICs, British Empire, business cycle, capital controls, Celtic Tiger, central bank independence, collateralized debt obligation, corporate governance, credit crunch, crony capitalism, currency manipulation / currency intervention, currency peg, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, demographic dividend, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Diane Coyle, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial innovation, fixed income, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, G4S, George Akerlof, German hyperinflation, Gini coefficient, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, hiring and firing, income inequality, income per capita, inflation targeting, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, junk bonds, knowledge economy, labour market flexibility, labour mobility, liberal capitalism, low interest rates, low skilled workers, market clearing, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, Meghnad Desai, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Naomi Klein, new economy, old age dependency ratio, Paul Samuelson, Ponzi scheme, price mechanism, price stability, purchasing power parity, rent-seeking, reserve currency, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, savings glut, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, sovereign wealth fund, spice trade, statistical model, technology bubble, The Great Moderation, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, The Market for Lemons, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, trade route, transaction costs, Washington Consensus, We are all Keynesians now, women in the workforce, working-age population, Y2K, Yom Kippur War

Globalization is a natural feature of the economic landscape, leading to a happier, more contented, global community driven on by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the spread of liberal democracy. In this view of the world, it is relatively easy to incorporate the hopes, aspirations and economic muscle of the emerging nations into an already established world economic order. This is the kind of message that found favour in books such as Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and which still finds sympathy today in international gatherings such as the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland (where the great and the good of the global community can solve mass poverty for the benefit of the international media before heading off to the nearest champagne reception or ski slope).

Knopf, New York, 2005 Friedman, M., A Theory of the Consumption Function, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1957 Friedman, T., The Lexus and the Olive Tree, Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, New York, 1999 ———, The World is Flat: A Brief History of the 21st Century, Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, New York, 2005 Fukuyama, F., The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press, New York, 1992 Gibson, C. and Lennon, E., Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850–1990, Population Division Working Paper No. 29, US Bureau of the Census, Washington DC, 1999 Gohkale, J. and Smetters, K., Fiscal and Generational Imbalances: New Budget Measures for New Budget Priorities, Policy Discussion Paper No. 5, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, OH, 2003 Greenspan, A., The Challenge of Central Banking in a Democratic Society, Federal Reserve, Washington DC, 1996 ———, The Age of Turbulence: Adventures in a New World, Allen Lane, London, 2007 Headrick, D.R., Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1981 Heilbroner, R., The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers, 7th edn, Simon & Shuster, New York, 1999 Hertz, N., The Silent Takeover, The Free Press, New York, 2002 Hobbes, T., ed Gaskin, J., Leviathan, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2008 House of Commons Treasury Committee, Globalisation: Prospects and Policy Responses, Fourteenth Report of Session, London, 2006/7 Hume, D.

(i) Canada (i), (ii), (iii) Canning, David (i) capital Asian economic growth (i) empires (i), (ii) inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) price stability (i) protectionism (i) resource scarcity (i) Spain and silver (i) state capitalism (i) trade (i), (ii), (iii) capital controls (i), (ii), (iii) capital flows see cross-border capital flows capital goods (i), (ii), (iii) capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) capital markets anarchy in capital markets (i) emerging nation war-chest (i) at the end of the rainbow (i) foreign-exchange reserves (i) gold rush revisited (i) the hole in the story (i) hunt for yield (i) Japan’s currency appreciation (i) liquidity and greed (i) mispricing of Western capital markets (i) no promised land (i) role of capital markets (i) economic integration, political proliferation (i), (ii), (iii) globalization (i) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii) resource scarcity (i), (ii) state capitalism (i) trade (i), (ii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) capital mobility (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) car industry (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) carry trades (i), (ii) Catholic Church (i) Ceauşescu, Nicolae (i) Celler, Emanuel (i) central banks capital controls (i) capital flows and nation states (i) price stability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) printing money (i) Central Europe (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Chang, Ha-Joon (i) Chelsea FC (i) Cheney, Dick (i) Chevron (i) China anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) currency (i) globalization (i), (ii) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) population demographics (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) price stability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) savings (i) scarcity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) secrets of Western success (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) trade (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) (i), (ii) Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) (i) choice (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Christianity (i), (ii), (iii) Chrysler (i) Clark, Gregory (i) classical economists (i) climate change (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) coal (i) COFER (currency composition of official foreign exchange reserves) (i), (ii) Collier, Paul (i) colonialism (i), (ii), (iii) Columbus, Christopher (i), (ii) Comet jet airliner (i), (ii) Commission of the European Union (i) Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS) (i) commodity prices globalization (i) income inequality (i) a post-dollar financial order (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) savings (i) Spain and silver (i) state capitalism (i), (ii) Common Agricultural Policy (i) communications (i), (ii), (iii) communism capital markets (i) economic integration, political proliferation (i) fall of (i) political economy and inequalities (i) population demographics (i), (ii) scarcity (i), (ii) state capitalism (i) trade (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) The Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels) (i) Communist Party (i), (ii) comparative advantage political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii) trade (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii) computers (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Congress of Vienna (i) Conservative Party (i) consumer prices (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) contraception (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) ‘core’ inflation (i), (ii) corruption (i), (ii) Cortés, Hernando (i), (ii) Costa Rica (i) cotton industry (i), (ii) Cour de Cassation (i) credit (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) credit crunch anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) indulging the US no more (i), (ii) politics and economics (i), (ii), (iii) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) state capitalism (i), (ii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) crime (i), (ii), (iii) Crimean War (i) ‘crony capitalism’ (i) cross-border capital flows anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii) capital flows and nation states (i), (ii), (iii) comparative advantage (i) economic integration, political proliferation (i) economic models (i), (ii) globalization (i), (ii) Japan (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) Cuba (i), (ii) Cultural Revolution (i), (ii), (iii) currency capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) economic integration, political proliferation (i) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) monetary union (i), (ii), (iii) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) protectionism (i) single capital market and many nations (i), (ii) state capitalism (i) current account (balance of payments) (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) current-account deficit (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) current-account surplus capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) indulging the US no more (i), (ii) resource scarcity (i) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Cyprus (i) Czechoslovakia (i) Czech Republic (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) debt capital markets (i), (ii), (iii) globalization (i) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) political economy and inequalities (i) population ageing (i) price stability and economic instability (i) state capitalism (i), (ii) deflation (i), (ii), (iii) demand-management policies (i), (ii), (iii) democracy (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) demographic deficit (i), (ii), (iii) demographic dividend (i), (ii), (iii) demographic profile (i), (ii), (iii) Deng Xiaoping (i), (ii), (iii) dependency ratios (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Depression see Great Depression Desai, Meghnad (i) Deutsche Mark (i), (ii), (iii) developed world capital markets (i), (ii), (iii) globalization (i) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) population demographics (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) trade (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) diet (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) see also food diversification (i), (ii) division of labour (i) dollar see US dollar Dominican Republic (i) dot.com bubble (i), (ii) drugs (i), (ii), (iii) Dubai Ports World (DP World) (i), (ii) Dutch East India Company (i), (ii) East Asia (i), (ii) Eastern Europe capital markets (i), (ii) migration (i), (ii), (iii) scarcity (i) state capitalism (i) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) East Germany (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) East India Company (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Economic Consequences of the Peace (Keynes) (i), (ii), (iii) economic crisis see also Asian economic crisis anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii) economic instability (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii) state capitalism (i) trade (i), (ii) economic growth capital markets (i), (ii), (iii) demographic dividends and deficits (i) globalization (i), (ii), (iii) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii) a post-dollar financial order (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) scarcity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) trade (i), (ii) US domestic reform (i) economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) economic models (i), (ii), (iii) economic rent (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) economics (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) economies of scale (i), (ii), (iii) The Economist (i) Ecuador (i) EdF (Électricité de France) (i), (ii) education capital markets (i) migration (i), (ii), (iii) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) resource scarcity (i) state capitalism (i) Eichengreen, Barry (i), (ii) elderly population (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) electricity (i) Elizabeth II, Queen (i) Ellis Island (i), (ii) emerging economies anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) globalization (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) population demographics (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) scarcity (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) secrets of Western success (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) trade (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Western progress (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) ‘enabling’ resources (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) The End of History (Fukuyama) (i) energy supplies political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) politics and economics (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) resource scarcity (i), (ii) Russian power politics (i) Spain and silver (i) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) Engels, Friedrich (i) England (i), (ii), (iii) English language (i) English Premier League (i), (ii), (iii) Enlightenment (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Enron (i) Entente Cordiale (i) equities anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) population ageing (i), (ii), (iii) a post-dollar financial order (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) savings (i) An Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus) (i), (ii), (iii) EU see European Union euro (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii) Europe political economy and inequalities (i), (ii) population demographics (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii) secrets of Western success (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Spain and silver (i) state capitalism (i), (ii) trade (i), (ii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) European Central Bank (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) European Union (EU) economic integration, political proliferation (i), (ii) migration (i), (ii), (iii) state capitalism (i) trade (i) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) exchange rates anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) income inequality (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) sovereign wealth funds (i) the West’s diminished status (i) exports China (i), (ii) political economy and inequalities (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii) state capitalism (i), (ii) trade (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Eyser, George (i) Fannie Mae (i) Federal Open Markets Committee (FOMC) (i), (ii) Federal Reserve anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii) economic integration, political proliferation (i) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) Ferrari (i) fertility rates (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) Fidelity International (i) financial services industry (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Finland (i) First World War (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) FOMC see Federal Open Markets Committee food political economy and inequalities (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) price stability and economic instability (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) rent-seeking behaviour (i) resource scarcity (i), (ii) savings (i) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii), (iii) Forbes.com (i) foreign direct investment anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii) income inequality (i) population demographics (i), (ii) trade (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) foreign-exchange reserves anarchy in capital markets (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) indulging the US no more (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) price stability and economic instability (i) single capital market and many nations (i) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) fossil fuels (i) France economic integration, political proliferation (i), (ii) indulging the US no more (i), (ii) Louisiana Purchase (i), (ii) political economy and inequalities (i), (ii) population demographics (i) state capitalism (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) trade (i) the West’s diminished status (i), (ii) Frank, Barney (i) Freddie Mac (i) freedom of speech (i), (ii) free market (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) free trade (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) Friedman, Milton (i), (ii), (iii) Friedman, Thomas (i) Fu Chengyu (i) fuel (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) Fukuyama, Francis (i) fund managers (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) G7 (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v) G8 (i), (ii), (iii) G20 (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii) Gagon, Joseph E.


pages: 324 words: 86,056

The Socialist Manifesto: The Case for Radical Politics in an Era of Extreme Inequality by Bhaskar Sunkara

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, agricultural Revolution, Bernie Sanders, British Empire, business climate, business cycle, capital controls, centre right, Charles Lindbergh, collective bargaining, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, Donald Trump, equal pay for equal work, fake news, false flag, feminist movement, Ferguson, Missouri, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gig economy, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, happiness index / gross national happiness, high-speed rail, Honoré de Balzac, income inequality, inventory management, Jeremy Corbyn, labor-force participation, land reform, land value tax, Mark Zuckerberg, means of production, Meghnad Desai, Mikhail Gorbachev, Neil Kinnock, new economy, Occupy movement, postindustrial economy, precariat, race to the bottom, Ralph Waldo Emerson, self-driving car, Silicon Valley, SimCity, single-payer health, Steve Bannon, telemarketer, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, union organizing, Upton Sinclair, urban renewal, We are all Keynesians now, We are the 99%

And while we defend newly won gains, we must fight to avoid the crippling bureaucratization that pushed the great social-democratic movements of the early twentieth century into a self-defeating accommodation with the system. It won’t be easy, but we still have a world to win. TEN STAY FLY IN RECENT DECADES, socialism has been challenged from all directions. The influential German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf was right when he wrote that Francis Fukuyama’s proclamation of “liberal democracy as the final form of human government” was “a caricature of a serious argument,” but he agreed with its core premise: “socialism is dead, and none of its variants can be revived for a world awakening from the double nightmare of Stalinism and Brezhnevism.” From the Left, Andre Gorz echoed that sentiment: “As a system, socialism is dead.

They spent their energy writing detailed blueprints for the future but had no strategy to realize them besides the goodwill of elites. What’s more, they suffered from a profoundly antidemocratic sensibility. Marx believed that socialism came from the struggles of workers, not the plans of a few intellectuals. In The German Ideology, Marx did describe an “end of history”: communism. He wrote of a world without states and with class divisions overcome, in which “society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic.”

At the very least, socialism of other stripes seemed to offer the only way out of underdevelopment for the formerly colonized world and welfare-state prosperity for the former colonizers. Socialist confidence was destroyed over the course of the 1980s. By the early ’90s, the Marxist theory of history was stood on its head: proponents of capitalism were confident that their own “end of history” had been reached. If you could even find Marx outside of university classrooms (where he was increasingly presented as a humanist philosopher instead of a revolutionary firebrand), it was on Wall Street, where cheeky traders put down Sun Tzu and heralded the long-dead German as a prophet of globalization.


Toast by Stross, Charles

anthropic principle, Buckminster Fuller, cosmological principle, dark matter, disinformation, double helix, Ernest Rutherford, Extropian, Fairchild Semiconductor, flag carrier, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Free Software Foundation, Future Shock, Gary Kildall, glass ceiling, gravity well, Great Leap Forward, Hans Moravec, Higgs boson, hydroponic farming, It's morning again in America, junk bonds, Khyber Pass, launch on warning, Mars Rover, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Neil Armstrong, NP-complete, oil shale / tar sands, peak oil, performance metric, phenotype, plutocrats, punch-card reader, Recombinant DNA, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, slashdot, speech recognition, strong AI, traveling salesman, Turing test, urban renewal, Vernor Vinge, Whole Earth Review, Y2K

Historian Eric Hobsbawm dated it as running from June 28th, 1914 (when the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, raising the curtain on the First World War) until December 25th, 1991 (when Mikhail Gorbachev formally dissolved the Soviet Union). But that diagnosis was carried out in the 1990s, back when it was possible for conservative political analyst Francis Fukuyama to publish a book titled The End of History without being laughed out of town and pelted with rotten fruit. It is seductively tempting in 2005 to say that the 20th century really ended on September 11th, 2001, with an iconic act of violence that may well lead to long-term consequences as horrific as the start of the First World War.

“Once we quantized time, we tied our work to the clock; and now that the work is automated, so is the ticking. We are a short-sighted species. That there was a quarter of a trillion lines of bad software out there seven years ago is no surprise. That such a quantity has been halved to date is good news, but not quite adequate. We have, in a very real way, invented our own end of history: a software apocalypse that in the day ahead will engulf banks, businesses, government agencies, and anyone who runs a large, monolithic, database that is more than perhaps ten years old. Let us hope for the future that the consequences are not too serious—and that the lesson will be learned for good by those who for so long have ignored us.”


pages: 287 words: 82,576

The Complacent Class: The Self-Defeating Quest for the American Dream by Tyler Cowen

affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Airbnb, Alvin Roth, assortative mating, behavioural economics, Bernie Sanders, bike sharing, Black Lives Matter, Black Swan, business climate, business cycle, circulation of elites, classic study, clean water, David Graeber, declining real wages, deindustrialization, desegregation, digital divide, Donald Trump, driverless car, drone strike, East Village, Elon Musk, Ferguson, Missouri, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, gig economy, Google Glasses, Hyman Minsky, Hyperloop, income inequality, intangible asset, Internet of things, inventory management, knowledge worker, labor-force participation, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, medical residency, meta-analysis, obamacare, offshore financial centre, Paradox of Choice, Paul Samuelson, Peter Thiel, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, Richard Florida, security theater, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Skype, South China Sea, Steven Pinker, Stuxnet, The Great Moderation, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, total factor productivity, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, upwardly mobile, Vilfredo Pareto, working-age population, World Values Survey

As overall social and economic dynamism declines and various forms of lock-in increase, it becomes harder to finance and maintain the superstructure that keeps stability and all of its comforts in place. The most talented of the middle rise to the top, while a lot of other forms of mobility slow down and congeal, thereby heralding the loss of dynamism and, eventually, control. And so the complacent class is but a phase in American life, rather than Francis Fukuyama’s much-heralded “End of History.” Still, for whatever cracks may be showing in the edifice, the complacent class defines our current day, even though we are starting to see parts of it crumble before our eyes. One of the great ironies of the situation is that those most likely to complain about the complacent class are themselves the prime and often most influential members of that class themselves, namely what I call the privileged class.


pages: 267 words: 82,580

The Dark Net by Jamie Bartlett

3D printing, 4chan, bitcoin, blockchain, brain emulation, carbon footprint, Cody Wilson, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, degrowth, deindustrialization, Edward Snowden, end-to-end encryption, eternal september, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Free Software Foundation, global village, Google Chrome, Great Leap Forward, Howard Rheingold, Internet of things, invention of writing, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, John Gilmore, John Perry Barlow, Julian Assange, Kuwabatake Sanjuro: assassination market, Lewis Mumford, life extension, litecoin, longitudinal study, Mark Zuckerberg, Marshall McLuhan, Mondo 2000, moral hazard, moral panic, Nick Bostrom, Occupy movement, pre–internet, printed gun, Ray Kurzweil, rewilding, Ross Ulbricht, Satoshi Nakamoto, Skype, slashdot, synthetic biology, technological singularity, technoutopianism, Ted Kaczynski, TED Talk, The Coming Technological Singularity, Turing test, Vernor Vinge, WikiLeaks, Zimmermann PGP

But his ultimate vision is for us to return to what we once were, thousands of years ago: roaming groups of hunter-gatherers. ‘I accept, of course,’ says Zerzan, ‘this is going to be rather difficult to achieve.’ Zerzan’s solutions are pretty extreme. But it’s not just anarcho-primitivists who are worried by a transhumanist future of boundless possibilities. Francis Fukuyama, the prominent economist who coined the expression ‘the end of history’ to pronounce the victory of the capitalist system, has declared transhumanism the ‘most dangerous idea of the twenty-first century’. That’s probably a little unfair. One of the stated aims of Humanity+ is to think through the ethical, legal and social implications of dramatic technological change.


pages: 220 words: 88,994

1989 The Berlin Wall: My Part in Its Downfall by Peter Millar

anti-communist, back-to-the-land, Berlin Wall, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, glass ceiling, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, kremlinology, Marshall McLuhan, Mikhail Gorbachev, mutually assured destruction, Prenzlauer Berg, pre–internet, QWERTY keyboard, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Sinatra Doctrine, urban sprawl, working-age population

But it didn’t half feel good. * See also Peter Millar’s All Gone to Look for America: Riding the Iron Horse Across a Continent and Back. London: Arcadia Books, 2008 12 Brave New World And with that, history came to an end. I wish. American political philosopher Francis Fukuyama’s celebrated 1992 book, The End of History and the Last Man, arguing that the collapse of communism spelled the global triumph of Western liberal democracy could not have been more wrong. In early 1990, I described the tumultuous events of the previous year as a wave of revolutions that had finally ended a seventy-five-year European civil war.


pages: 279 words: 87,910

How Much Is Enough?: Money and the Good Life by Robert Skidelsky, Edward Skidelsky

banking crisis, basic income, Bertrand Russell: In Praise of Idleness, Bonfire of the Vanities, call centre, carbon credits, creative destruction, critique of consumerism, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, death of newspapers, Dr. Strangelove, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Great Leap Forward, guns versus butter model, happiness index / gross national happiness, Herbert Marcuse, income inequality, income per capita, informal economy, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, market clearing, market fundamentalism, Meghnad Desai, Paul Samuelson, Philippa Foot, planned obsolescence, precautionary principle, profit motive, purchasing power parity, Ralph Waldo Emerson, retail therapy, Robert Solow, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, Tobin tax, union organizing, University of East Anglia, Veblen good, wage slave, wealth creators, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

In all ages, we find groups of “peers” or “equals” respecting each other while looking down on everyone else. The citizenry of ancient Athens was one such group, as was the medieval nobility. Modern democracy extends the circle of peers to all adults in a given territory. Whether or not its triumph is guaranteed by History, as Francis Fukuyama has claimed, it now has the support of almost all the world, at least on paper. No modern vision of the good life can be such as to thwart it. This rules out, as we noted in Chapter 3, values such as mastery and “greatness of soul,” which cannot in principle be universalized. Respect has many sources, varying from culture to culture.

The Book of Revelation, source of so much poetry and madness, prophesies a “new heaven and a new earth,” in which “there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain: for the former things are passed away.” The millenarian seed lies deep in the Christian consciousness, ready to sprout forth lusciously in times of hardship or turmoil. But mainstream Christianity has kept a wary distance from it. St. Augustine, a former Platonist, positioned his “city of God” not at the end of history but outside time altogether, abandoning the “city of man” to its old cyclical fate. Sacred history was thus sharply distinguished from mundane, secular history. However, the potential for intermingling was always there. Joachim of Flora, a twelfth-century mystic, developed an ingenious theory of human history based on the three persons of the Trinity.


pages: 286 words: 87,168

Less Is More: How Degrowth Will Save the World by Jason Hickel

air freight, Airbnb, Anthropocene, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, biodiversity loss, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, capital controls, circular economy, cognitive dissonance, coronavirus, corporate governance, corporate personhood, cotton gin, COVID-19, David Graeber, decarbonisation, declining real wages, degrowth, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, disinformation, Elon Musk, energy transition, Extinction Rebellion, extractivism, Fairphone, Fellow of the Royal Society, flying shuttle, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gender pay gap, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of the steam engine, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, Jevons paradox, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, land reform, liberal capitalism, lockdown, longitudinal study, low interest rates, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, McMansion, means of production, meta-analysis, microbiome, Money creation, moral hazard, mortgage debt, Murray Bookchin, Naomi Klein, negative emissions, new economy, ocean acidification, offshore financial centre, oil shale / tar sands, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, out of africa, passive income, planetary scale, planned obsolescence, plutocrats, Post-Keynesian economics, quantitative easing, rent control, rent-seeking, retail therapy, Ronald Reagan, Rupert Read, Scramble for Africa, secular stagnation, shareholder value, sharing economy, Simon Kuznets, structural adjustment programs, the scientific method, The Spirit Level, transatlantic slave trade, trickle-down economics, universal basic income

Reagan beat Carter in a landslide. During the decade that followed, with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the euphoria around the globalisation of American-style consumerism, Limits to Growth was more or less forgotten. Its warnings were cast aside in favour of the consensus celebrated by Francis Fukuyama in his 1992 book The End of History: free-market capitalism was the only game in town, and it seemed for all the world that it was going to last for ever. * But then something changed. With the global financial crisis of 2008 the party came crashing to an end. People’s faith in the limitless magic of the free market and the universal promise of the American Dream was shaken to its core.


pages: 338 words: 85,566

Restarting the Future: How to Fix the Intangible Economy by Jonathan Haskel, Stian Westlake

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Andrei Shleifer, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, book value, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, business cycle, business process, call centre, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, central bank independence, Charles Lindbergh, charter city, cloud computing, cognitive bias, cognitive load, congestion charging, coronavirus, corporate governance, COVID-19, creative destruction, cryptocurrency, David Graeber, decarbonisation, Diane Coyle, Dominic Cummings, Donald Shoup, Donald Trump, Douglas Engelbart, Douglas Engelbart, driverless car, Edward Glaeser, equity risk premium, Erik Brynjolfsson, Estimating the Reproducibility of Psychological Science, facts on the ground, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, general purpose technology, gentrification, Goodhart's law, green new deal, housing crisis, income inequality, index fund, indoor plumbing, industrial cluster, inflation targeting, intangible asset, interchangeable parts, invisible hand, job-hopping, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, lockdown, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Marc Andreessen, market design, Martin Wolf, megacity, mittelstand, new economy, Occupy movement, oil shock, patent troll, Peter Thiel, Phillips curve, postindustrial economy, pre–internet, price discrimination, quantitative easing, QWERTY keyboard, remote working, rent-seeking, replication crisis, risk/return, Robert Gordon, Robert Metcalfe, Robert Shiller, Ronald Coase, Sam Peltzman, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, six sigma, skeuomorphism, social distancing, superstar cities, the built environment, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, total factor productivity, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, Uber for X, urban planning, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, work culture , X Prize, Y2K

Debt also keeps cognitive load low (in periods of no crisis), and so the returns to new financial innovation that will enable intangibles to be securitised will help. Finally, we saw that one institution is fit for purpose throughout the ages and over all the dimensions of exchange: trust and reciprocity. The long-run determinants of this institution are a source of ongoing debate; see, for example, the work of Francis Fukuyama and Robert Putnam.18 In the meantime, the software industry has developed tools, practices, and working norms that make it perhaps the most remote-work-friendly high-skilled job. Perhaps people who grew up playing online video games or socialising and dating over smartphones have developed ways of communicating at a distance that replicate much of the emotional and psychological quality of face-to-face interactions.

In 1968, computer scientist Douglas Engelbart demonstrated videoconferencing and simultaneous collaborative document editing.16 Three decades later, the journalist Frances Cairncross coined the term “the death of distance” to describe a world in which these technologies would free the economy from the vulgar constraints of place.17 At the beginning of 2020, place remained at least as important as ever: to the extent that people invoked the death of distance, they did so as an example of the naive optimism of yesteryear, alongside flying cars, the paperless office, and the end of history. COVID-19 offered a new hope for remote working. With nearly half of all workers forced to stay at home in many countries, firms were faced with a compulsory experiment. Many workers and some employers found that remote working was not as bad as they thought. Few people missed their commute, people learned to use videoconferencing and collaboration software, and many businesses that would have never considered a wholesale move to remote working found that it was possible to do business without everyone in the office.


pages: 304 words: 90,084

Net Zero: How We Stop Causing Climate Change by Dieter Helm

3D printing, autonomous vehicles, Berlin Wall, biodiversity loss, blockchain, Boris Johnson, carbon credits, carbon footprint, carbon tax, clean water, congestion charging, coronavirus, COVID-19, CRISPR, decarbonisation, deindustrialization, demand response, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, electricity market, Extinction Rebellion, fixed income, food miles, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, Great Leap Forward, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, Haber-Bosch Process, high-speed rail, hydrogen economy, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, Jevons paradox, lockdown, market design, means of production, microplastics / micro fibres, North Sea oil, ocean acidification, off grid, off-the-grid, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, peak oil, planetary scale, precautionary principle, price mechanism, quantitative easing, remote working, reshoring, rewilding, Ronald Reagan, smart meter, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, statistical model, systems thinking, Thomas Malthus

For climate change and a carbon cartel, it is the medium and long term that count, and despite all the claims to the contrary, the UN’s carbon cartel has fallen flat. That is why emissions keep going up. The appeal to universal interests The initial cheerleader for what became the Kyoto Protocol was the US, and Bill Clinton in particular. In the heady days after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the zeitgeist was captured by Francis Fukuyama’s bestseller, The End of History and the Last Man.[3] The theme of the book is the recognition that, after trying almost everything else, including socialism, the rational enlightenment had produced its final end-product: liberal democracy. All nations would eventually converge on this model. Politics is a rational business, and to the extent that people are organised into nations, they would all come to share the democratic model, with markets to allocate most resources.

As people got richer, because liberal markets worked, they would lend their support to the liberal model. They would not, it was easily assumed, act parochially and nationalistically, as the old nationalisms of the past withered away. There would be no Donald Trumps, Vladimir Putins and Xi Jinpings, and no Marine Le Pens or Viktor Orbáns. Behind this end-of-history thesis lay a deeper intellectual idea, one that was instrumental in the very creation of the UN. It was that rationalism would prevail, with a universal appreciation of the rights of all people, wherever and whenever they lived. It would find its expression in Nicholas Stern’s The Economics of Climate Change.[4] Stern is a utilitarian who cannot see why we should discriminate between current and future people.

., Environment and Statecraft: The Strategy of Environmental Treaty-making. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2005; and Victor, D. G., Global Warming Gridlock: Creating More Effective Strategies for Protecting the Planet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Back to text 3. Fukuyama, F., The End of History and the Last Man. Hamondsworth, Penguin, 1989. Back to text 4. Stern, N., The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, HM Treasury. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, January 2007. Back to text 5. For an analysis, see Baltensperger, M. and Dadush, U., ‘The European Union–Mercosur Free Trade Agreement: Prospects and risks’, Policy Contribution, 11 September 2019, https://bruegel.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/PC-11_2019.pdf.


We Need New Stories: Challenging the Toxic Myths Behind Our Age of Discontent by Nesrine Malik

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, barriers to entry, Bernie Sanders, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, centre right, cognitive dissonance, continuation of politics by other means, currency peg, disinformation, Donald Trump, fake news, feminist movement, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gender pay gap, gentrification, ghettoisation, glass ceiling, illegal immigration, invisible hand, Jeremy Corbyn, mass immigration, moral panic, Nate Silver, obamacare, old-boy network, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Overton Window, payday loans, planetary scale, Ponzi scheme, public intellectual, race to the bottom, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, sexual politics, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, Thomas L Friedman, transatlantic slave trade

And it is something which the right, the centre and the left agree on because identity is so subjective – you cannot hold on to it, you cannot achieve traction with it, it is too atomised for an ideology, whether that ideology is nationalism or socialism. You can see this frustration in the works of thinkers who have come to the identity debate. Francis Fukuyama, in 2018, pines for a time when the nation state was the unit of identity, in his book Identity: Contemporary Identity Politics and the Struggle for Recognition. Philosopher Kwame Appiah, in the 2018 book The Lies That Bind, thinks identity is ‘imagined’. Unable to conceive of coalitions of inequality as the way forward, people reach for universal values that are not relevant when people are disenfranchised.

., 12 May 2018), https://twitter.com/david_goodhart/status/995279834753495040 [accessed on 25 July 2019] 235 ‘racial grievance outburst’: David Goodhart (Twitter, 4:42 p.m., 12 May 2018), https://twitter.com/David_Goodhart/status/995328243065675776?s=20 [accessed on 25 July 2019] 235 ‘the nihilistic grievance culture’: David Goodhart, ‘The riots at the end of history’ (Prospect, 9 August 2011), http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2011/08/the-riots-at-the-end-of-history/ [accessed on 25 July 2019] 235 ‘How does it help black inner city youth’: David Goodhart (Twitter, 2:52 p.m., 13 May 2018), https://twitter.com/David_Goodhart/status/995663062433783808?s=20 [accessed on 25 July 2019] 235 ‘Windrush would have been less likely’: David Goodhart (Twitter, 3:19 p.m., 13 May 2018), https://twitter.com/David_Goodhart/status/995669746619207680?

(Prospect, 20 February 2004), https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/too-diverse-david-goodhart-multiculturalism-britain-immigration-globalisation [accessed on 25 July 2019] 237 ‘will not get a job if you don’t give a shit’: David Goodhart, ‘The riots at the end of history’ (Prospect, 9 August 2011), http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2011/08/the-riots-at-the-end-of-history/ [accessed on 25 July 2019] 237 ‘… a “metropolitan” fixation’: David Goodhart (Twitter, 4:12 p.m., 5 November 2017), https://twitter.com/David_Goodhart/status/927207074278313984 [accessed on 25 July 2019] 239 ‘… the British media is 95 per cent white’: Neil Thurnan, ‘Does British Journalism Have a Diversity Problem?’


pages: 327 words: 90,542

The Age of Stagnation: Why Perpetual Growth Is Unattainable and the Global Economy Is in Peril by Satyajit Das

"there is no alternative" (TINA), "World Economic Forum" Davos, 9 dash line, accounting loophole / creative accounting, additive manufacturing, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, Alfred Russel Wallace, Anthropocene, Anton Chekhov, Asian financial crisis, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, bond market vigilante , Bretton Woods, BRICs, British Empire, business cycle, business process, business process outsourcing, call centre, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, Carmen Reinhart, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, collaborative economy, colonial exploitation, computer age, creative destruction, cryptocurrency, currency manipulation / currency intervention, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, declining real wages, Deng Xiaoping, deskilling, digital divide, disintermediation, disruptive innovation, Downton Abbey, Emanuel Derman, energy security, energy transition, eurozone crisis, financial engineering, financial innovation, financial repression, forward guidance, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, geopolitical risk, gig economy, Gini coefficient, global reserve currency, global supply chain, Goldman Sachs: Vampire Squid, Great Leap Forward, Greenspan put, happiness index / gross national happiness, high-speed rail, Honoré de Balzac, hydraulic fracturing, Hyman Minsky, illegal immigration, income inequality, income per capita, indoor plumbing, informal economy, Innovator's Dilemma, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends on his not understanding it, It's morning again in America, Jane Jacobs, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, junk bonds, Kenneth Rogoff, Kevin Roose, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Les Trente Glorieuses, light touch regulation, liquidity trap, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, low skilled workers, Lyft, Mahatma Gandhi, margin call, market design, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Minsky moment, mortgage debt, mortgage tax deduction, new economy, New Urbanism, offshore financial centre, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, old age dependency ratio, open economy, PalmPilot, passive income, peak oil, peer-to-peer lending, pension reform, planned obsolescence, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, Potemkin village, precariat, price stability, profit maximization, pushing on a string, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, Rana Plaza, rent control, rent-seeking, reserve currency, ride hailing / ride sharing, rising living standards, risk/return, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, Russell Brand, Satyajit Das, savings glut, secular stagnation, seigniorage, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Slavoj Žižek, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, Stephen Fry, systems thinking, TaskRabbit, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, the market place, the payments system, The Spirit Level, Thorstein Veblen, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, total factor productivity, trade route, transaction costs, uber lyft, unpaid internship, Unsafe at Any Speed, Upton Sinclair, Washington Consensus, We are the 99%, WikiLeaks, Y2K, Yom Kippur War, zero-coupon bond, zero-sum game

A utopian future of endless expansion beckoned, where the economy doubled every dozen years, bringing prosperity to billions. Growth would help resolve poverty and political tensions, without damaging the environment.5 The power and mobility of capital, free trade, and a globally integrated economy were now articles of faith. Political scientist Francis Fukuyama, in his 1992 book The End of History and the Last Man, made the case for the triumph of Western liberal democracy and market systems as the end point of ideological evolution. In reality, though, the period was punctuated by a series of rolling bubbles and crises: the 1987 stock market crash, the 1990 collapse of the junk bond market, the 1994 great bond market massacre, the 1994 Tequila economic crisis in Mexico, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the 1998 collapse of the hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management, the 1998 default of Russia, and the 2000 dot-com crash.

In his book about the period, Greenspan proudly quoted an economist's assessment of his policy: “The housing boom saved the economy…. Americans went on a real estate orgy. [They] traded up, tore down, and added on.”6 It was to end, of course, in disaster. In 2008, in a deliberate rejoinder to The End of History, Robert Kagan titled his new book The Return of History and the End of Dreams, an appropriate description of the events that unfolded. The financial crisis in the US subprime mortgage market commenced in 2007. It spawned jokes about loans made to NINJAs (no income, no job or asset), NINAs (no income, no asset), and to unemployed men in string vests buying houses with no money.

In stage seven, people disassociate themselves from the idea, becoming embarrassed to refer to it directly. In stage eight, it becomes fashionable to admit that you never read the book in the first place. In stage nine, the book is moved from its prominent place in the library or living room to the guest toilet, joining other such notable works as A Brief History of Time, The End of History, The Black Swan, and The Tipping Point. There may be an additional stage when the author and the book are subsequently rediscovered, usually posthumously, and undergo a revival. But inequality remains a serious issue, constraining economic recovery and improvements in living standards globally.


pages: 327 words: 88,121

The Vanishing Neighbor: The Transformation of American Community by Marc J. Dunkelman

Abraham Maslow, adjacent possible, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Albert Einstein, assortative mating, Berlin Wall, big-box store, blue-collar work, Bretton Woods, Broken windows theory, business cycle, call centre, clean water, company town, cuban missile crisis, dark matter, David Brooks, delayed gratification, different worldview, double helix, Downton Abbey, Dunbar number, Edward Jenner, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, George Santayana, Gini coefficient, glass ceiling, global supply chain, global village, helicopter parent, if you build it, they will come, impulse control, income inequality, invention of movable type, Jane Jacobs, Khyber Pass, Lewis Mumford, Louis Pasteur, Marshall McLuhan, McMansion, Nate Silver, obamacare, Occupy movement, off-the-grid, Peter Thiel, post-industrial society, Richard Florida, rolodex, Saturday Night Live, Silicon Valley, Skype, social intelligence, Stanford marshmallow experiment, Steve Jobs, TED Talk, telemarketer, The Chicago School, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, the medium is the message, the strength of weak ties, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, urban decay, urban planning, Walter Mischel, War on Poverty, women in the workforce, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

The disparity is particularly harrowing for anyone who has recently returned from China, where many of the airports gleam.19 The United States devotes only 2 percent of its annual GDP to infrastructure investment—less than half of what Europe spends, and a mere sixth of China’s equivalent investment.20 Nevertheless, it’s not entirely clear how we would finance an explosion of new building: though some dispute whether the nation’s budget is really in such dire need of rebalance, a country whose deficit is out of control seems a lousy candidate for the next New Deal.21 No one can doubt that many of the institutions that were once uniquely American—or, at least, creatures of the West—have recently been adopted elsewhere around the world. It’s been more than two decades since Francis Fukuyama published The End of History, arguing that free-market democracy had finally vanquished its competitors as the prescription for societal success.22 Whether or not you bought into Fukuyama’s thesis—even if you believe, as some do, that history has “returned”—what’s undeniable is that many of the rhythms that propelled American preeminence have been adopted elsewhere.

., “Cut to Invest: Establish a ‘Cut-to-Invest Commission’ to Reduce Low-Priority Spending, Consolidate Duplicative Programs, and Increase High-Priority Investments,” Brookings Institute, November 2012. 21http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/11/opinion/krugman-dwindling-deficit-disorder.html. 22Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 2006). 23Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996). 24Lipset, American Exceptionalism, 54, 81–83. 25The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, November 15, 2012. 26Emma Lazarus, “The New Colossus,” http://www.libertystatepark.com/emma.htm. 27Edmund Burke, Reflections on the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: The Harvard Classics, 1909–14). 28Thomas Bender, Community and Social Change in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978). 29Gordon S.

(Eisenhower administration), 14, 51, 58, 65, 100, 190 elderly people, 196–211 independence of, 197, 203, 207, 208–9 elections, U.S., 15, 50, 56, 187, 190 Chinatown Bus effect and, 47 gerrymandering and, xvi, 182–87, 189 of 2012, 7, 37–38, 184–85 Elks Lodges, 44, 116 e-mail, xi, 8, 109–10, 125, 145 End of History, The (Fukuyama), 230–31 England, xii, 81, 82, 157, 158, 166–67, 179, 194 entrepreneurialism, 82, 164 ethnicity, 32, 79, 147, 148, 231, 237 ethnic tensions, 4, 39 Europe, 81, 226, 230, 232 evangelism, 42, 71 evolution, 90–91 expectations, 30, 60, 70–71, 82 Facebook, 37–38, 45, 48, 108, 114, 124–25, 140, 145, 148–49, 152, 190, 194, 219 faith, loss of, xv, xvii, xviii, 14, 181–82, 193, 195 family, 70, 119, 125, 129, 139, 194 affirmation and, 104–7 extended (traditional), 12, 15, 16, 26–27, 68, 97, 106 health care and, 201, 210 income inequality and, 21–22 nuclear, 16, 26, 32, 84, 145 in Saturn model, 95, 96 single-parent, 26, 30–31, 43, 105, 216 Farmer, Paul, 64 fathers, 12, 106, 131 of author, 132–33, 134, 240 fax machines, 16, 35, 74 fear, 71, 84, 119, 128, 157, 233, 235 of hitchhiking, 133, 134, 135 homosexuality and, 42 quality of life and, 50–52, 55–57, 60 Federal Express, 147–48 Ferguson, Niall, 229 Fiddler on the Roof (musical), 69–70 filibuster, xvi, 182, 185, 188, 191, 248n Filter Bubble, The (Pariser), 37 Fiorina, Morris, 139 First Wave society, 16, 20, 31–32, 233 Fischer, Claude, 87, 88, 105, 106, 128–29, 237–38 Fishkin, James, 192–93 Florida, Richard, 83, 175 food, 51, 58, 62, 79, 136–37, 202 brain and, 90–91 see also agriculture Ford, Gerald, 47 Fortune, 4–5, 14 Fowler, James, 96 Fox News, 184, 187–88 France, 80 Franklin, Rosalind, 161 Freakonomics (Levitt and Dubner), 7, 133–34 freedom, 25, 26, 43, 49, 52, 60, 67, 82, 102, 161, 207 French and Indian War, 157 Friedman, Thomas, xiv, 17–21, 24, 141–42, 151–52, 240 friends, 8, 12, 24, 25, 91, 95, 99–100, 101, 119, 120, 122, 124, 152, 194 affirmation from, 102–3, 104, 107, 110, 111 agreement of, 148–49 health care and, 201, 210 Fukuyama, Francis, 230–31 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 52 Gans, Herbert, 144–45 Gates, Bill, 10 gay marriage, 42, 50, 69 GDP (gross domestic product), 17, 53, 99, 180, 198, 227, 230 gemeinschaft, 86 General Social Survey, 105, 119–20, 260n–61n generational succession, 135 genetics, 160–62 genius, 159, 160, 162 Genovese, Kitty, 84–85 Georgetown University, 118 gerrymandering, xvi, 182–87, 189 ghettos, 128 Gingrich, Newt, 14, 15 Gini coefficient, 22, 23 Girls (TV show), 30 Gladwell, Malcolm, 6, 91–92 globalization, 17–18, 20, 50, 138, 141, 152, 221 global village, 16, 142–43 Google, 37, 194 government, U.S., xii–xviii, 52, 67, 200, 234 dysfunction of, 181–90 French government compared with, 80 health care and, 201–5 public frustration with, xiv–xvii, 181–83, 195 urban decay and, 127 Graduate, The (movie), 4, 28, 30, 248n Granovetter, Mark, 168–69, 266n Great Depression, 60, 68, 85, 202–6, 210, 226 Greatest Generation, 51, 70 Great Migration, 40–41, 43, 137 Great Recession, xv, 54, 55, 62, 106 Great Society, 210, 255n Gresens, Mr., 220–22, 225 grit, 5, 6, 216–25 Grove, Andy, 10 Guest, Avery, 118 Gutenberg, Johann, 162 “habits of the heart,” 81, 89, 115, 138, 258n Habits of the Heart (Bellah), 65–66, 141, 258n Hampton, Keith, 118–19 Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), 222, 224 health, health care, 101, 197–211 costs of, 198–200, 204–5, 206, 209–10 public, 197, 199, 204 quality of life and, 31, 51, 52, 57–60, 204 Hearst, William Randolph, 188 heart attack, 58, 200, 207 Heckman, James, 223 helicopter parent, 106 Henry, Peter Blair, 179–81 history, 51, 59, 67, 68, 230–34 affirmation and, 109, 110 of American community, 79–89 Dunbar’s number and, 94 Tofflers’ view of, 15–16 hitchhiking, 132–35 Hoffman, Dustin, 28 homogeneity, 46–47, 135, 147–48, 189, 191 homophobia, 42, 43, 51 homosexuality, 42–43, 87, 88 hospitals, 197, 199–204, 206–7 House of Representatives, U.S., xvi, 182, 184–85, 186 Hout, Mike, 237–38 Hughes, Charles Evans, 187 Hunter, James Davison, 69 hunter-gatherers, 16, 92, 142, 144–45 Hussein, Saddam, 67 Hutterites, 94 identity, 20, 42, 74, 130, 146 immigrants, 79, 82–83, 88, 232 income, xv, 21, 147, 180, 216, 227 discretionary, 55 inequality and, 21–24, 31 national, 21–22, 54 online communities and, 250n working women and, 27, 28 independence, 28–29, 30, 52, 57, 60, 106, 138, 151 of elderly, 197, 203, 207, 208–9 individualism, 65–66, 73, 74, 102 networked, 111 industrial paradigm, 14–15, 26, 82, 84–87, 170–71, 233 Industrial Revolution, xiii, 4, 16, 85, 86, 127, 138, 166, 201 inequality, economic, 21–24, 26, 31 information, 6–8, 18, 21, 26, 138, 260n brought together in a new way, 159–66, 209 Chinatown bus effect and, 35–38 information technology, 13, 16, 125, 141–43, 187, 209 affirmation and, 103–4, 108, 109–10 online communities and, 114–15 infrastructure, xiv, xv, xvi, 11, 25, 45, 194, 236 decay of, 229, 230 health, 200–201, 203–4, 206, 210 Inglehart, Ronald, 67–69, 73 inner directedness, 5–7 inner-ring relationships, see intimate relationships innovation, xiii, xvii, xviii, 158–75, 209 intellectual cross-fertilization, 158–68 interdependence, 17, 85–86 intermarriage: educational, 43–44 racial, 68 Internet, 10, 18, 36, 37, 121, 125, 146, 250n interracial marriage, 68 intimate relationships (inner-ring relationships), 92, 93, 96, 119–20, 137, 138–39, 145, 238 affirmation and, 103–7, 110, 112, 115 Chinatown Bus effect and, 42–46 health care and, 201, 204, 210 see also marriage iPhones, 160, 231 Iraq, 67 isolation: intellectual, 176 social, 73, 87, 113, 115, 118–19, 122, 127, 149, 207 Issacson, Walter, 164 Italy, 17, 163 It Gets Better Project, 43 Jackson, Kenneth, 40 Jacobs, Jane, 85–88, 127, 166–68, 170, 176 Jamaica, 179–81, 191 James, LeBron, 8–9 Japan, 226, 233 Jews, Orthodox, 98–99 jobs, 18–20, 23, 24, 27, 29, 30, 131, 139, 170–71, 235–36, 260n–61n affirmation and, 104–5, 107 assembly line, 53, 85 exporting of, 197–98 service, 18–19, 53, 132, 138, 236 Jobs, Steve, 10, 64, 160, 164–65 Johansson, Frans, 163, 168, 172 Johnson, Lyndon B., 127, 187, 210 Johnson, Steven, 159 Kahneman, Daniel, 13 Kelling, George, 150 Kelly, Mervin, 164 Kennedy, Robert, 206 Kenner, Edward, 158, 159 Kentucky, 147–48 Kerry, John, 47 Keynes, John Maynard, 53 Khrushchev, Nikita, 56 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 24, 46, 108–9, 128, 238 King, Stephen, 123 Kiwanis Club, 44, 45, 116 “Knowledge Is Power Program” (KIPP), 222, 223, 224 Koestler, Arthur, 158–60, 162, 166 Krebs cycle, 220–22 Ku Klux Klan, 111, 146 labor, labor unions, 14, 19, 20, 23, 53, 180, 181 leadership, xv, xvii, 23, 101, 108–9, 182, 186, 191 Leave It to Beaver (TV show), 34–35, 51 legislative districts, manipulation of (gerrymandering), xvi, 182–86, 189 Lehigh Valley, 170, 171 leisure, 53, 104–5, 139 Levin, David, 223 Levitt, Steven, 133–34 Lexus and the Olive Tree, The (Friedman), 141, 151–52 LGBT rights, 24, 42–43 libraries, 18, 36, 37 lifespan, longevity, 17, 31, 57–60, 62, 199, 204–5 Lincoln, Abraham, 228 Ling, Richard, 122–23 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 231 LISTSERVs, 114, 151 Little House on the Prairie (TV show), xii, 247n lobbyists, 183, 187, 229 Locke, Richard, 165, 172 Lonely Crowd, The (Riesman), 5–6, 7, 65, 141 Loose Connections (Wuthnow), 239 Lorain, Ohio, 79–80, 135 “lord of the manor” community, xii–xiii, 81 Lowery, Rev.


pages: 298 words: 95,668

Milton Friedman: A Biography by Lanny Ebenstein

Abraham Wald, affirmative action, Alan Greenspan, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, business cycle, classic study, Deng Xiaoping, Fall of the Berlin Wall, fiat currency, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Hernando de Soto, hiring and firing, inflation targeting, invisible hand, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, Lao Tzu, liquidity trap, means of production, Modern Monetary Theory, Mont Pelerin Society, Myron Scholes, Pareto efficiency, Paul Samuelson, Phillips curve, Ponzi scheme, price stability, public intellectual, rent control, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, Sam Peltzman, school choice, school vouchers, secular stagnation, Simon Kuznets, stem cell, The Chicago School, The inhabitant of London could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, zero-sum game

Everyone, everywhere, now understands that the road to success for underdeveloped countries is freer markets and globalization. Interviewer: In the end, your ideas have triumphed over Marx and Keynes. Is this, then, the end of the road for economic thought? Is there anything more to say than free markets are the most efficient way to organize a society? Is it the “end of history,” as Francis Fukuyama put it? Friedman: Oh no. “Free markets” is a very general term. There are all sorts of problems that will emerge. Free markets work best when the transaction between two individuals affects only those individuals. But that isn’t the fact. The fact is that, most often, a transaction between you and me affects a third party.

The fact is that, most often, a transaction between you and me affects a third party. That is the source of all problems for government. That is the source of all pollution problems, of the inequality problem. There are some good economists like Gary Becker and Bob Lucas who are working on these issues. This reality ensures the end of history will never come. Many books and articles have been written on Friedman over the decades. J. Daniel Hammond, Theory and Measurement: Causality Issues in Milton Friedman’s Monetary Economics (Cambridge University Press, 1996), is a detailed study of Friedman’s monetary views from the perspective of causality.


pages: 357 words: 95,986

Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work by Nick Srnicek, Alex Williams

3D printing, additive manufacturing, air freight, algorithmic trading, anti-work, antiwork, back-to-the-land, banking crisis, basic income, battle of ideas, blockchain, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, business cycle, call centre, capital controls, capitalist realism, carbon footprint, carbon tax, Cass Sunstein, centre right, collective bargaining, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, David Graeber, decarbonisation, deep learning, deindustrialization, deskilling, Doha Development Round, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, Evgeny Morozov, Ferguson, Missouri, financial independence, food miles, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, future of work, gender pay gap, general purpose technology, housing crisis, housing justice, income inequality, industrial robot, informal economy, intermodal, Internet Archive, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Kickstarter, Kiva Systems, late capitalism, liberation theology, Live Aid, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, market design, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, mass incarceration, means of production, megaproject, minimum wage unemployment, Modern Monetary Theory, Mont Pelerin Society, Murray Bookchin, neoliberal agenda, New Urbanism, Occupy movement, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, Overton Window, patent troll, pattern recognition, Paul Samuelson, Philip Mirowski, post scarcity, post-Fordism, post-work, postnationalism / post nation state, precariat, precautionary principle, price stability, profit motive, public intellectual, quantitative easing, reshoring, Richard Florida, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Ronald Reagan, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, self-driving car, Slavoj Žižek, social web, stakhanovite, Steve Jobs, surplus humans, synthetic biology, tacit knowledge, technological determinism, the built environment, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, the long tail, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, wages for housework, warehouse automation, We are all Keynesians now, We are the 99%, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population

For a contemporary updating, see the Laboria Cuboniks manifesto in Helen Hester and Armen Avanessian, eds, Dea Ex Machina (Berlin: Merve Verlag, 2015). 69.Benedict Singleton, ‘Maximum Jailbreak’, in Mackay and Avanessian, #Accelerate. 70.Alfred Schmidt, The Concept of Nature in Marx (London: Verso, 2014), pp. 144–5. 71.Sadie Plant, ‘Binary Sexes, Binary Codes’, 3 June 1996, at future-nonstop.org. 72.Reza Negarestani, ‘The Labor of the Inhuman’, in Mackay and Avanessian, #Accelerate, 452. 73.Ibid., p. 438. 74.For examples of these parochial defences, see Jürgen Habermas, The Future of Human Nature (Cambridge: Polity, 2003); Francis Fukuyama, Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution (London: Profile, 2003). 75.For two fascinating accounts of bodily experimentation, see Shannon Bell, Fast Feminism (New York: Autonomedia, 2010); and Beatriz Preciado, Testo Junkie: Sex, Drugs and Biopolitics in the Pharmacopornographic Era (New York: Feminist Press CUNY, 2013). 76.The remainder of this book will be concerned mostly with the first two aspects of synthetic freedom: the basic conditions of existence, and the collective capacities to act.

Triumph in the political battles to achieve it will require organising a broadly populist left, building the organisational ecosystem necessary for a full-spectrum politics on multiple fronts, and leveraging key points of power wherever possible. Yet the end of work would not be the end of history. Building a platform for a post-work society would be an immense accomplishment, but it would still only be a beginning.1 This is why conceiving of left politics as a politics of modernity is so crucial: because it requires that we not confuse a post-work society – or indeed any society – with the end of history. Universalism always undoes itself, possessing its own resources for an immanent critique that insists and expands upon its ideals. No particular social formation is sufficient to satisfy its conceptual and political demands.


Hiding in Plain Sight: The Invention of Donald Trump and the Erosion of America by Sarah Kendzior

4chan, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Black Lives Matter, borderless world, Brexit referendum, Cambridge Analytica, Carl Icahn, Chelsea Manning, Columbine, corporate raider, desegregation, disinformation, don't be evil, Donald Trump, drone strike, Edward Snowden, Evgeny Morozov, fake news, Ferguson, Missouri, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, Golden arches theory, hiring and firing, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, Jeffrey Epstein, Julian Assange, junk bonds, Michael Milken, military-industrial complex, Mohammed Bouazizi, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, new economy, Oklahoma City bombing, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, payday loans, plutocrats, public intellectual, QAnon, Robert Hanssen: Double agent, Ronald Reagan, side hustle, Silicon Valley, Skype, Steve Bannon, Thomas L Friedman, trickle-down economics, Twitter Arab Spring, unpaid internship, white flight, WikiLeaks, Y2K, zero-sum game

This was the era after the Iran-Contra criminals were sentenced but before future Trump attorney general William Barr helped pardon them; when the Berlin Wall fell and the Soviet Union soon followed; when dissidents like Nelson Mandela, Lech Walesa, and Václav Havel went from prisons to presidencies; when America had a war and a recession and both of them came to a seemingly definitive end. This was an actual era of hope and change, and it did not last long. At the time, I was too young to appreciate the novelty of this reversal of fortune—or to appreciate that political and economic fortunes could be reversed at all. I took global shifts in stride like a preteen Francis Fukuyama, lumping “the USSR” in with “gangster rap” in the category of “things only adults are dumb enough to fear.” My parents had been ridiculous to hide under their desks in the 1950s and 1960s, I thought, waiting for bombs that never dropped and invaders that never came. My main resource on the end of the Cold War may have been the Scorpions’ “Wind of Change” video, but my casual conviction that America was indomitable put me in the mainstream.

Throughout the early 1990s, public intellectuals proclaimed that American-style democracy and capitalism had begun their ceaseless triumph across the globe. Peace and prosperity were not mere aspirations, but the permanent condition of the new world order. The contention that we were on a brand-new geopolitical path, free from age-old travails, was discussed in bestsellers like Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man. This idea reflected the doctrine of American exceptionalism that post–Cold War US presidents pushed citizens to embrace. The rest of the world had to fall in line with America because America no longer had a rival of equal might—a position US officials marketed as civic-minded benevolence rather than de facto domination.

For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below. Abramovich, Roman academia Access Hollywood tape Acosta, Alexander Afghanistan Agalarov family Ailes, Roger Akin, Todd Allen, Woody al-Qaeda “alternative facts” American exceptionalism danger of definition of and The End of History and the Last Man (Fukuyama) illusion of and normalcy bias Andrew, Prince, Duke of York Apprentice, The Arab Spring Arendt, Hannah Arif, Tevfik Arpaio, Joe Assange, Julian authoritarianism adult children of authoritarian leaders American authoritarianism asylum seekers from and conspiracy narratives and digital media and fear in former Soviet republics in Hungary and the judiciary and kinship rivalries networked authoritarianism and pageantry of branding and protest scholars of and Trump, Donald and voice of individual conscience See also autocracy; dictatorship autocracy abdication of vigilance as bedrock of and The Apprentice autocratic consolidation and black Americans and climate change definition of expecting versus accepting and hope in Hungary international axis of autocrats and Karimov, Islam and kleptocracy in Kyrgyzstan and loss of sense of time and nepotism predictability of and propaganda and the Republican Party in Russia state recovery from and technological change traits and warning signs transition to and transnational criminal networks and Trump, Donald and writers See also authoritarianism; dictatorship Bannon, Steve Baquet, Dean Barak, Ehud Barr, Donald Barr, William Barrett, Wayne “battleground states” Bayrock Group Ben-Menashe, Ari Bezos, Jeff Biegun, Stephen “Big Lie” (Third Reich technique) Billy Bush Principle bin Laden, Osama Black, Charles Black Lives Matter Blavatnik, Len Bloom, Lisa Bloomberg, Michael Blunt, Matt Blunt, Roy Bogatin, David Bogatin, Jacob “both-sidesing” Bouazizi, Mohamed Boyle, Matthew Breitbart (website) Breitbart, Andrew Browder, Bill Brown, Julie K.


pages: 323 words: 95,188

The Year That Changed the World: The Untold Story Behind the Fall of the Berlin Wall by Michael Meyer

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Ayatollah Khomeini, bank run, Berlin Wall, Bonfire of the Vanities, Bretton Woods, BRICs, call centre, disinformation, Dr. Strangelove, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, guns versus butter model, haute couture, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Prenzlauer Berg, public intellectual, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, union organizing

For them, the revolutions of 1989 became the foundation of a new post–Cold War weltanschauung: the idea that all totalitarian regimes are similarly hollow at the core and will crumble with a shove from the outside. If its symbol is the Berlin Wall, coming down as Ronald Reagan famously bid it to do in a speech in Berlin in 1987, the operational model was Nicolae Ceausescu’s Romania. “Once the wicked witch was dead,” as Francis Fukuyama, the eminent political economist, has put it, “the munchkins would rise up and start singing joyously about their liberation.” It is true that instead of seeking to contain the former Soviet Union, as previous administrations had done, the United States under Ronald Reagan chose to confront it.

In it, he warned of the dangers of “mismemory” or, worse, the deliberate rewriting of memory (not unlike the onetime overlords of the Soviet empire) to shape the future. “In the wake of 1989,” he said, “with boundless confidence and insufficient reflection, we put the twentieth century behind us and strode boldly into its successor swaddled in self-serving half-truths: the triumph of the West, the end of History, the unipolar American moment.” If there is a real enemy, he concluded, it is less the rogues’ gallery of Washington’s “bad guys” than America’s ignorance of itself and the past—a prescription, according to Judt, for self-defeat. America will sort out its troubles. The country does that well, better than most others.


pages: 309 words: 96,434

Ground Control: Fear and Happiness in the Twenty First Century City by Anna Minton

"there is no alternative" (TINA), Abraham Maslow, Albert Einstein, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Boris Johnson, Broken windows theory, call centre, crack epidemic, credit crunch, deindustrialization, East Village, energy security, Evgeny Morozov, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, ghettoisation, high-speed rail, hiring and firing, housing crisis, illegal immigration, invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Kickstarter, moral panic, new economy, New Urbanism, race to the bottom, rent control, Richard Florida, Right to Buy, Silicon Valley, Steven Pinker, the built environment, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, The Spirit Level, trickle-down economics, University of East Anglia, urban decay, urban renewal, white flight, white picket fence, World Values Survey, young professional

Once the largest port in the world, Docklands was reduced to a largely derelict wasteland, bereft of its economic base and identity. Tens of thousands of jobs were lost, factories were abandoned and the riverfront was crumbling. In 1989, as the Cold War came to an end and the political economist Francis Fukuyama declared ‘the end of history’, Canary Wharf, the emblem of Thatcher’s free-market revolution, was going up. The foundations of the landmark tower, One Canada Square, the tallest building in Britain, were laid at the height of the 1980s’ boom. It followed the deregulation of the financial markets, which was the catalyst for the exponential growth of the global financial services industry in Britain.


pages: 282 words: 93,783

The Future Is Analog: How to Create a More Human World by David Sax

Alvin Toffler, augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, Bernie Sanders, big-box store, bike sharing, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, bread and circuses, Buckminster Fuller, Cal Newport, call centre, clean water, cognitive load, commoditize, contact tracing, contact tracing app, COVID-19, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, data science, David Brooks, deep learning, digital capitalism, Donald Trump, driverless car, Elon Musk, fiat currency, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gentrification, George Floyd, indoor plumbing, informal economy, Jane Jacobs, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, Kickstarter, knowledge worker, lockdown, Lyft, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Marshall McLuhan, Minecraft, New Urbanism, nuclear winter, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, Peter Thiel, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, remote working, retail therapy, RFID, Richard Florida, ride hailing / ride sharing, Saturday Night Live, Shoshana Zuboff, side hustle, Sidewalk Labs, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, smart cities, social distancing, sovereign wealth fund, Steve Jobs, Superbowl ad, supply-chain management, surveillance capitalism, tech worker, technological singularity, technoutopianism, TED Talk, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, TikTok, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, unemployed young men, urban planning, walkable city, Y2K, zero-sum game

His supporters loved him because of this. He “wasn’t afraid to fight” and took to social media as they often did, to share every thought without shame or hesitation. “Democracy is really about a conversation in which people deliberate, express views, and come to a consensus,” said Francis Fukuyama, the famed political scientist and author of books such as The End of History and the Last Man. “Digital technology undermined our ability to have that public conversation because it undermined the authorities of institutions that shaped that conversation”—news media, publishers, political parties, universities—“and replaced it with a cacophony of voices that aren’t democratic, they’re nihilistic.


pages: 809 words: 237,921

The Narrow Corridor: States, Societies, and the Fate of Liberty by Daron Acemoglu, James A. Robinson

Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, agricultural Revolution, AltaVista, Andrei Shleifer, bank run, Berlin Wall, British Empire, California gold rush, central bank independence, centre right, classic study, collateralized debt obligation, collective bargaining, colonial rule, Computer Numeric Control, conceptual framework, Corn Laws, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate governance, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, crony capitalism, Dava Sobel, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of the americas, double entry bookkeeping, Edward Snowden, en.wikipedia.org, equal pay for equal work, European colonialism, export processing zone, Ferguson, Missouri, financial deregulation, financial innovation, flying shuttle, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, high-speed rail, income inequality, income per capita, industrial robot, information asymmetry, interest rate swap, invention of movable type, Isaac Newton, it's over 9,000, James Watt: steam engine, John Harrison: Longitude, joint-stock company, Kula ring, labor-force participation, land reform, Mahatma Gandhi, manufacturing employment, mass incarceration, Maui Hawaii, means of production, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Nelson Mandela, obamacare, openstreetmap, out of africa, PageRank, pattern recognition, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, seminal paper, Skype, spinning jenny, Steven Pinker, the market place, transcontinental railway, War on Poverty, WikiLeaks

Gaining rights was a consequence of their organization and empowerment. The story of women’s liberation isn’t unique or exceptional. Liberty almost always depends on society’s mobilization and ability to hold its own against the state and its elites. Chapter 1 HOW DOES HISTORY END? A Coming Anarchy? In 1989, Francis Fukuyama predicted the “end of history,” with all countries converging to the political and economic institutions of the United States, what he called “an unabashed victory of economic and political liberalism.” Just five years later Robert Kaplan painted a radically different picture of the future in his article “The Coming Anarchy.”

The 2018 UAE Gender Equality Awards, https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/jan/28/uae-mocked-for-gender-equality-awards-won-entirely-by-men. See Holton (2003) for the women’s suffrage movement in Britain and the empowerment of women and the facts we use. CHAPTER 1. HOW DOES HISTORY END? The contrasting arguments made by Francis Fukuyama, Robert Kaplan, and Yuval Noah Harari are presented in Fukuyama (1989), Kaplan (1994), and Harari (2018). We quote from Fukuyama (1989, 3), and Kaplan (1994, 46). The text of the 2005 Constitution of the DRC can be found at http://www.parliament.am/library/sahmanadrutyunner/kongo.pdf. A useful overview of the rebel groups of the Eastern DRC is provided by the BBC: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-20586792.

It is, and repression and dominance are as much in its DNA as they are in the DNA of the Despotic Leviathan. But the shackles prevent it from rearing its fearsome face. How those shackles emerge, and why only some societies have managed to develop them, is the major theme of our book. Diversity, Not the End of History Liberty has been rare in human history. Many societies have not developed any centralized authority capable of enforcing laws, resolving conflicts peacefully, and protecting the weak against the strong. Instead they have often imposed a cage of norms on people, with similarly dire consequences for liberty.


pages: 920 words: 233,102

Unelected Power: The Quest for Legitimacy in Central Banking and the Regulatory State by Paul Tucker

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", Alan Greenspan, Andrei Shleifer, bank run, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Basel III, battle of ideas, Bear Stearns, Ben Bernanke: helicopter money, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, business cycle, capital controls, Carmen Reinhart, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, centre right, conceptual framework, corporate governance, diversified portfolio, electricity market, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial innovation, financial intermediation, financial repression, first-past-the-post, floating exchange rates, forensic accounting, forward guidance, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Akerlof, Greenspan put, incomplete markets, inflation targeting, information asymmetry, invisible hand, iterative process, Jean Tirole, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, Kenneth Rogoff, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, means of production, Money creation, money market fund, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, Northern Rock, operational security, Pareto efficiency, Paul Samuelson, price mechanism, price stability, principal–agent problem, profit maximization, public intellectual, quantitative easing, regulatory arbitrage, reserve currency, risk free rate, risk tolerance, risk-adjusted returns, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Ronald Coase, seigniorage, short selling, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, stochastic process, subprime mortgage crisis, tail risk, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Market for Lemons, the payments system, too big to fail, transaction costs, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, yield curve, zero-coupon bond, zero-sum game

And having become, by doctrine, inclination, and expertise, overly detached from the system’s stability, there was nothing short of a reawakening among central banks to the significance of most monetary liabilities being issued by private businesses (banks). Inflation targeting had no more heralded the End of Monetary History than, twenty years earlier, the collapse of the Berlin Wall had marked the End of History (as Francis Fukuyama had wondered in his paean to Hegel). As the financial and economic crisis broke and deepened, there was unscripted innovation on a grand scale. In addition to finding themselves acting in their institutions’ traditional role as lenders of last resort to the banking system, central banks provided liquidity to “shadow” banks, such as money market funds and finance companies.

It does not remotely have the range, let alone ambition, of the work of the Continental European public intellectuals who have taken on that vast subject, perhaps most famously Michel Foucault and Juergen Habermas. Nor is it a broad examination of shortcomings in the modern democratic state of the kind recently pursued by Francis Fukuyama.19 Rather, it looks at just one corner of the state apparatus and its position in democratic society—independent agencies—albeit one of great importance for understanding the role and legitimacy of the state more generally. As will become apparent, for my taste too many discussions of the regulatory state, perhaps especially in Europe, are about “independence versus accountability” or about combining “accountability and control,” often stretching the concept of accountability until those supposed antonyms can coexist.20 To find our way through this, we have to think about what democratic legitimacy entails, but not about whether insulated agencies can help to prop up or restore the ailing authority of a state.


pages: 356 words: 102,224

Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space by Carl Sagan

Albert Einstein, anthropic principle, Apollo 11, Apollo 13, cosmological principle, dark matter, Dava Sobel, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, germ theory of disease, invention of the telescope, Isaac Newton, Johannes Kepler, Kuiper Belt, linked data, low earth orbit, military-industrial complex, Neil Armstrong, nuclear winter, planetary scale, power law, profit motive, remunicipalization, scientific worldview, Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, sparse data, Stephen Hawking, telepresence, time dilation

Crawford, "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers," Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 31 (1990), p. 377. I. A. Crawford, "Space, World Government, and `The End of History,' "Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol. 46 (1993), pp. 415-420. Freeman J. Dyson, The World, the Flesh, and the Devil (London: Birkbeck College, 1972). Ben R. Finney and Eric M. Jones, editors, Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985). Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: The Free Press, 1992). Charles Lindholm, Charisma (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990). The comment on the need for a telos is in this book.

The prospects of such a time contrast provocatively with forecasts that the progress of science and technology is now near some asymptotic limit; that art, literature, and music are never to approach, much less exceed, the heights our species has, on occasion, already touched; and that political life on Earth is about to settle into some rock-stable liberal democratic world government, identified, after Hegel, as "the end of history." Such an expansion into space also contrasts with a different but likewise discernible trend in recent times—toward authoritarianism, censorship, ethnic hatred, and a deep suspicion of curiosity and learning. Instead, I think that, after some debugging, the settlement of the Solar System presages an open-ended era of dazzling advances in science and technology; cultural flowering; and wide-ranging experiments, up there in the sky, in government and social organization.

Instead, I think that, after some debugging, the settlement of the Solar System presages an open-ended era of dazzling advances in science and technology; cultural flowering; and wide-ranging experiments, up there in the sky, in government and social organization. In more than one respect, exploring the Solar System and homesteading other worlds constitutes the beginning, much more than the end, of history. IT'S IMPOSSIBLE, for us humans at least, to look into our future, certainly not centuries ahead. No one has ever done so with any consistency and detail. I certainly do not imagine that I can. I have, with some trepidation, gone as far as I have to this point in the book, because we are just recognizing the truly unprecedented challenges brought on by our technology.


pages: 352 words: 98,561

The City by Tony Norfield

accounting loophole / creative accounting, air traffic controllers' union, anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, asset-backed security, bank run, banks create money, Basel III, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bretton Woods, BRICs, British Empire, capital controls, central bank independence, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, continuation of politics by other means, currency risk, dark matter, Edward Snowden, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial innovation, financial intermediation, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, G4S, global value chain, Goldman Sachs: Vampire Squid, interest rate derivative, interest rate swap, Irish property bubble, Leo Hollis, linked data, London Interbank Offered Rate, London Whale, Londongrad, low interest rates, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, means of production, Money creation, money market fund, mortgage debt, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, plutocrats, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, Real Time Gross Settlement, regulatory arbitrage, reserve currency, Ronald Reagan, seigniorage, Sharpe ratio, sovereign wealth fund, Suez crisis 1956, The Great Moderation, transaction costs, transfer pricing, zero-sum game

That is why there is no such thing as a ‘NYIBOR’ for New York, for US dollars or for anything else.31 Panitch and Gindin’s political analysis also exaggerates the stability of US domination. Ironically, they trace the different historical phases of US power, but then suggest that the latest phase of US hegemony is one that will last indefinitely. This is a reincarnation of Francis Fukuyama’sEnd of History’ thesis, where (free market) global capitalism is the final stage of world economic development. Not surprisingly, Fukuyama’s thesis was celebrated by Washington policy-makers.32 But Panitch and Gindin do something similar, making many references to former US Treasury Secretary Robert Rubin’s management of and influence on the resolution of global financial crises and posing the US as the world’s ‘chief financial architect’.33 In this, they badly misjudge the security of the US position.

But the British state’s promotion of finance in the late twentieth century, and still today, can be explained by the fact that the UK financial system is a structural part of the international operations of British capitalism, underpinning the role of Britain as an imperial power. Far from Britain having a ‘lagging’ commitment to finance since the 1970s, British policy-makers had a very forward-looking view on how the existing status of the City as a global financial centre could be leveraged to its best advantage.25 The ‘End of History’ revisited The role of the US in the world economy and global finance comes up in a different way in the work of Leo Panitch, Sam Gindin and their fellow authors, many from York University, Canada. Panitch and Gindin’s book, The Making of Global Capitalism: The Political Economy of American Empire, is worth noting for its many insights but also because it displays some typical analytical weaknesses.

., pp. 12, 117–18. 28This will be discussed further in Chapter 8. 29Panitch and Gindin, The Making of Global Capitalism, p. 312. 30Martijn Konings, ‘American Finance and Empire in Historical Perspective’, in Leo Panitch and Martijn Konings (eds), American Empire and the Political Economy of Global Finance, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, 2nd Edition, p. 51. 31Chapter 2 explains the peculiar form of the US interbank money market. 32Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992. 33Panitch and Gindin, The Making of Global Capitalism, p. 277. 34Ibid., p. 330. 35Ibid., p. 336. 36James Kynge, Richard McGregor, Daniel Dombey, Martin Arnold, Helen Warrell and Cynthia O’Murchu, ‘The China Syndrome’, Financial Times, 3 March 2011. 37US Congress, Annual Report to Congress, US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 1 November 2010. 38US Congress, Annual Report to Congress, US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 20 November 2013. 39David Harvey, The New Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 181. 40Ibid., pp. 210–11. 41Harvey does not discuss this in his 2003 ‘dispossession’ book, or in his major work, The Limits to Capital (London: Verso, 2006). 42François Chesnais, ‘The Economic Foundations of Contemporary Imperialism’, Historical Materialism, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2007, pp. 121–42 (pp. 122–4). 43Ibid., pp. 131–2. 44Maria Ivanova has also clearly set out the links between the expansion of the financial system and the worldwide problems of capital accumulation, something ignored by many others who instead see the growth of finance as driven by a financial elite that controls government policy.


pages: 299 words: 19,560

Utopias: A Brief History From Ancient Writings to Virtual Communities by Howard P. Segal

1960s counterculture, Alvin Toffler, Apollo 11, biodiversity loss, British Empire, Buckminster Fuller, complexity theory, David Brooks, death of newspapers, dematerialisation, deskilling, energy security, European colonialism, Evgeny Morozov, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, future of journalism, Future Shock, G4S, garden city movement, germ theory of disease, Golden Gate Park, Herbert Marcuse, Herman Kahn, intentional community, invention of the printing press, Isaac Newton, Jeff Bezos, John Markoff, John von Neumann, Kim Stanley Robinson, knowledge economy, Lewis Mumford, liberation theology, Louis Pasteur, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, means of production, megaproject, Nelson Mandela, Nicholas Carr, Nikolai Kondratiev, One Laptop per Child (OLPC), out of africa, pneumatic tube, post-war consensus, public intellectual, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Ray Kurzweil, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Skype, stem cell, Stephen Hawking, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Stewart Brand, Strategic Defense Initiative, technological determinism, technoutopianism, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, transcontinental railway, traveling salesman, union organizing, urban planning, W. E. B. Du Bois, War on Poverty, warehouse robotics, Whole Earth Catalog

For that matter, in the spirit of Victor Frankenstein, the ultimate dream of many of Noble’s visionaries is the creation through genetic engineering of a womanless world—the culmination of centuries of mistreatment of women in general and of female engineers and scientists in particular.5 Such schemes go beyond the eugenics crusades of many “reformers” in both Europe and America in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that culminated in Nazism’s quest for a pure Aryan race—but not, of course, one of men alone. The Absence of Historical Context History can therefore be ignored, so profoundly different will the future be from the past. History no longer matters.6 One might, of course, suggest that our ahistorical contemporary visionaries have embraced a watered-down version of Francis Fukuyama’s still controversial The End of History and the Last Man (1992), but there is no evidence of that kind of sophisticated argument in any of their writings. Consequently, few if any of the high-tech zealots of our own day have ever considered the possibility that, far from being original, their crusades fit squarely within a rich Western tradition of 188 The Resurgence of Utopianism scientific and technological utopianism.

But it was sometimes taken up by others who, for whatever reasons, dismissed serious and systematic thinking about the future as a waste of time, an indulgence not The Future of Utopias and Utopianism 241 fit for respectable leaders daily confronting endless challenges. Fukuyama’s provocative The End of History and the Last Man (1992) might have been Bush’s gospel had he ever read, much less understood, it; but he did neither. Ironically, Bush lost re-election in part because of his inability to present specifics to support the New World Order that he mentioned from time to time in light of the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Adams) 82–83 Educational Network of Maine 208 Edutopia 203–213 higher education and Edutopia 206–213 Edwards, Robert 127 Ehrenreich, Barbara 168 Einstein’s general theory of relativity 202 Eisenhower, President Dwight D 108–109, 115, 143 el dorado, Latin America 21 Electricite de France 152 “electronic battlefield” 105, 112 “electronic campus” 208, 210 Elements of Technology (Bigelow) 52 Elizabeth II, Queen, on economic crisis 166–167 Ellicott, Thomas 77 Embree, Ainslie 171 Emerson, Ralph Waldo 84 empowerment of the individual 122–123 End of History and the Last Man, The (Fukuyama) 188, 242 End of Ideology, The (Bell) 101 end of science 116 Endangered Species Act, United States 111 Energy Policy Act, US 153, 157 Index 273 Engels, Friedrich 32, 53, 60, 66–67, 250, 251 engineers and scientists compared 52 engineering as a culture 121 Engineers and the Price System, The (Veblen) 97, 106 “Enlightenment Project” 104, 116 Enlightenment 50, 55–56, 104, philosophies of 160 environmental disasters 115 environmental rights 253 Epode 47 Equality movement Washington state 25 equality 56 equality of genders 26, 92–93, 196 equality of opportunity 31, 54, 210 Erasmus 190 Espy, James 188 ethnopsychiatry 170 Etzler, John Adolphus 78, 79–80, 81 eugenics 159, 188 Evans, Oliver 77 Ewbank, Thomas 78, 80 experts 109, 112 and activism 107 attitudes toward 114, 115, 155–156, 157–160, 192 and changing of society 97 and education 205, 211 experts and scientists 100, 119, 121 need for 57 and nuclear power 155–156 as social engineers 108 systems experts 160 and Systems Analysis 110 and TQM 217 274 Index Expo 2010 Shanghai, China 38 Fabianism 20 Facebook 193, 194, 238 Fair America: World’s Fairs in the United States (Rydell, Findling, Pelle) 36 fascism 98, 104 Federal Communications Commission 210 Female Man, The (Russ) 92 Findling, John 36 Flanagan, Judy 145 Fleming, James 187–188, 207 Flubber 202 Fogarty, Robert 25 Ford Motor Company 139, 246 Ford, Henry 104, 157, 165 Ford, President Gerald 108 Fourier, Charles 25, 53, 60, 64–66, 67, 255 utopian views 64–65 Fourierists 29 Fourth Eclogue 47 Fragments (Pindar) 47, 237 France: and energy 157 French Revolution 57, 60, 64 French student revolt 1968 252 nuclear industry in 152 utopian housing projects in 2 utopianism in 24 Frankenstein (M.


pages: 334 words: 98,950

Bad Samaritans: The Myth of Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism by Ha-Joon Chang

"there is no alternative" (TINA), "World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Albert Einstein, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bilateral investment treaty, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, Brownian motion, business cycle, call centre, capital controls, central bank independence, colonial rule, Corn Laws, corporate governance, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, en.wikipedia.org, export processing zone, falling living standards, Fellow of the Royal Society, financial deregulation, financial engineering, fixed income, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, income per capita, industrial robot, Isaac Newton, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, land reform, liberal world order, liberation theology, low skilled workers, market bubble, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, means of production, mega-rich, moral hazard, Nelson Mandela, offshore financial centre, oil shock, price stability, principal–agent problem, Ronald Reagan, South Sea Bubble, structural adjustment programs, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade liberalization, transfer pricing, urban sprawl, World Values Survey

In the current renaissance of such views, some cultural theorists do not actually talk about culture per se. Recognising that culture is too broad and amorphous a concept, they try to isolate only those components that they think are most closely related to economic development. For example, in his 1995 book, Trust, Francis Fukuyama, the neo-con American political commentator, argues that the existence or otherwise of trust extending beyond family members critically affects economic development. He argues that the absence of such trust in the cultures of countries like China, France, Italy and (to some extent) Korea makes it difficult for them to run large firms effectively, which are key to modern economic development.

Of course, this “right” was the proverbial rope on which to hang one’s own economy!’ 17 According to an interview in the magazine Veja, 15 November 1996, as translated and cited by G. Palma (2003), ‘The Latin American Economies During the Second Half of the Twentieth Century – from the Age of ISI to the Age of The End of History’ in H-J. Chang (ed.), Rethinking Development Economics (Anthem Press, London), p. 149, endnotes 15 and 16. 18 Chang (2002), p. 132, Table 4.2. 19 A. Singh (1990), ‘The State of Industry in the Third World in the 1980s: Analytical and Policy Issues’, Working Paper, no. 137, April 1990, Kellogg Institute for International Studies, Notre Dame University. 20 The 1980 and 2000 figures are calculated respectively from the 1997 issue (Table 12) and the 2002 issue (Table 1) of World Bank’s World Development Report (Oxford University Press, New York). 21 M.

Nye (1991), ‘The Myth of Free-Trade Britain and Fortress France: Tariffs and Trade in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 51. no. 1. 18 Brisco (1907) neatly sums up this aspect of Walpole’s policy: ‘By commercial and industrial regulations attempts were made to restrict the colonies to the production of raw materials which England was to work up, to discourage any manufactures that would any way compete with the mother country, and to confine their markets to the English trader and manufacturer’ (p. 165). 19 Willy de Clercq, the European commissioner for external economic relations during the late 1980s, intones that ‘[o]nly as a result of the theoretical legitimacy of free trade when measured against widespread mercantilism provided by David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill and David Hume, Adam Smith and others from the Scottish Enlightenment, and as a consequence of the relative stability provided by the UK as the only and relatively benevolent superpower or hegemon during the second half of the nineteenth century, was free trade able to flourish for the first time’. W. de Clercq (1996), ‘The End of History for Free Trade?’ in J.Bhagwati & M.Hirsch (eds.), The Uruguay Round and Beyond – Essays in Honour of Arthur Dunkel (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor), p. 196. 20 J. Bhagwati (1985), Protectionism (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts), p. 18. Bhagwati, together with other free-trade economists of today, attaches so much importance to this episode that he uses as the cover of the book a 1845 cartoon from the political satire magazine, Punch, depicting the prime minister, Robert Peel, as a befuddled boy being firmly led to the righteous path of free trade by the stern, upright figure of Richard Cobden, the leading anti-Corn-Law campaigner. 21 C.


pages: 347 words: 99,317

Bad Samaritans: The Guilty Secrets of Rich Nations and the Threat to Global Prosperity by Ha-Joon Chang

"there is no alternative" (TINA), "World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, Albert Einstein, banking crisis, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bilateral investment treaty, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, Brownian motion, business cycle, call centre, capital controls, central bank independence, colonial rule, Corn Laws, corporate governance, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, en.wikipedia.org, export processing zone, falling living standards, Fellow of the Royal Society, financial deregulation, financial engineering, fixed income, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, income inequality, income per capita, industrial robot, Isaac Newton, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, land reform, liberal world order, liberation theology, low skilled workers, market bubble, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, means of production, mega-rich, moral hazard, Nelson Mandela, offshore financial centre, oil shock, price stability, principal–agent problem, Ronald Reagan, South Sea Bubble, structural adjustment programs, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade liberalization, transfer pricing, urban sprawl, World Values Survey

In the current renaissance of such views, some cultural theorists do not actually talk about culture per se. Recognising that culture is too broad and amorphous a concept, they try to isolate only those components that they think are most closely related to economic development. For example, in his 1995 book, Trust, Francis Fukuyama, the neo-con American political commentator, argues that the existence or otherwise of trust extending beyond family members critically affects economic development. He argues that the absence of such trust in the cultures of countries like China, France, Italy and (to some extent) Korea makes it difficult for them to run large firms effectively, which are key to modern economic development.

Of course, this “right” was the proverbial rope on which to hang one’s own economy!’ 17 According to an interview in the magazine Veja, 15 November 1996, as translated and cited by G. Palma (2003), ‘The Latin American Economies During the Second Half of the Twentieth Century – from the Age of ISI to the Age of The End of History’ in H-J. Chang (ed.), Rethinking Development Economics (Anthem Press, London), p. 149, endnotes 15 and 16. 18 Chang (2002), p. 132, Table 4.2. 19 A. Singh (1990), ‘The State of Industry in the Third World in the 1980s: Analytical and Policy Issues’, Working Paper, no. 137, April 1990, Kellogg Institute for International Studies, Notre Dame University. 20 The 1980 and 2000 figures are calculated respectively from the 1997 issue (Table 12) and the 2002 issue (Table 1) of World Bank’s World Development Report (Oxford University Press, New York). 21 M.

Nye (1991), ‘The Myth of Free-Trade Britain and Fortress France: Tariffs and Trade in the Nineteenth Century’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 51. no. 1. 18 Brisco (1907) neatly sums up this aspect of Walpole’s policy: ‘By commercial and industrial regulations attempts were made to restrict the colonies to the production of raw materials which England was to work up, to discourage any manufactures that would any way compete with the mother country, and to confine their markets to the English trader and manufacturer’ (p. 165). 19 Willy de Clercq, the European commissioner for external economic relations during the late 1980s, intones that ‘[o]nly as a result of the theoretical legitimacy of free trade when measured against widespread mercantilism provided by David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill and David Hume, Adam Smith and others from the Scottish Enlightenment, and as a consequence of the relative stability provided by the UK as the only and relatively benevolent superpower or hegemon during the second half of the nineteenth century, was free trade able to flourish for the first time’. W. de Clercq (1996), ‘The End of History for Free Trade?’ in J. Bhagwati & M. Hirsch (eds.), The Uruguay Round and Beyond – Essays in Honour of Arthur Dunkel (The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor), p. 196. 20 J. Bhagwati (1985), Protectionism (The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts), p. 18. Bhagwati, together with other free-trade economists of today, attaches so much importance to this episode that he uses as the cover of the book a 1845 cartoon from the political satire magazine, Punch, depicting the prime minister, Robert Peel, as a befuddled boy being firmly led to the righteous path of free trade by the stern, upright figure of Richard Cobden, the leading anti-Corn-Law campaigner. 21 C.


pages: 318 words: 99,524

Why Aren't They Shouting?: A Banker’s Tale of Change, Computers and Perpetual Crisis by Kevin Rodgers

Alan Greenspan, algorithmic trading, bank run, banking crisis, Basel III, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bitcoin, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, Black-Scholes formula, buy and hold, buy low sell high, call centre, capital asset pricing model, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Credit Default Swap, currency peg, currency risk, diversification, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial innovation, Financial Instability Hypothesis, fixed income, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Glass-Steagall Act, Hyman Minsky, implied volatility, index fund, interest rate derivative, interest rate swap, invisible hand, John Meriwether, latency arbitrage, law of one price, light touch regulation, London Interbank Offered Rate, Long Term Capital Management, Minsky moment, money market fund, Myron Scholes, Northern Rock, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Ponzi scheme, prisoner's dilemma, proprietary trading, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, risk tolerance, risk-adjusted returns, Silicon Valley, systems thinking, technology bubble, The Myth of the Rational Market, The Wisdom of Crowds, Tobin tax, too big to fail, value at risk, vertical integration, Y2K, zero-coupon bond, zero-sum game

Chapter 8 1 ‘Forms and paradoxes of principles-based regulation’, Julia Black, Professor of Law and Research Associate, Centre for the Analysis of Risk and Regulation, London School of Economics and Political Science, Capital Markets Law Journal, 3/4, 10 September 2008, http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/law/staff%20publications%20full%20text/black/forms%20and%20paradoxes%20of%20pbr%202008.pdf 2 The Age of Turbulence, Alan Greenspan, Penguin Books, 2008, p52. 3 ‘Testimony of Chairman Alan Greenspan, The regulation of OTC derivatives, Before the Committee on Banking and Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives’, 24 July 1998, http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/testimony/1998/19980724.htm 4 For more on this fascinating topic, see The Myth of the Rational Market, Justin Fox, Harper Business, 2011. 5 The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama, Penguin Books, 1992. 6 ‘The Financial Crisis and the Role of Federal Regulators’, Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, House of Representatives, 23 October 2008, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-110hhrg55764/html/CHRG-110hhrg55764.htm 7 Stabilizing an Unstable Economy, Professor Hyman Minsky, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1986. 8 ‘Working Paper No. 74, The Financial Instability Hypothesis’, Hyman Minsky, The Jerome Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, May 1992, http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp74.pdf 9 Unsettled Account: The Evolution of Banking in the Industrialised World since 1800, Richard S.

His leap of logic seems absurd but was, emotionally speaking, in tune with the widespread triumphalism of the time: Western free-market economies had just won the Cold War; the argument between state control and ‘freedom’ was thus seen to have been conclusively settled; and a popular and influential book even explained that we might be ‘at the end of history’.5 This, then, was the background to the regulatory environment that emerged. A widespread faith in the efficacy and inexorable ‘rightness’ of markets led, first from changes in the US, and then via inter-country rivalry, to a regulatory framework embodying the belief that professionals had, in Alan Greenspan’s words, ‘[the] ability to protect themselves’.


pages: 325 words: 99,983

Globish: How the English Language Became the World's Language by Robert McCrum

Alistair Cooke, anti-communist, AOL-Time Warner, Berlin Wall, Bletchley Park, British Empire, call centre, Charles Lindbergh, classic study, colonial rule, credit crunch, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, Etonian, export processing zone, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, invention of movable type, invention of writing, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, jimmy wales, knowledge economy, Livingstone, I presume, Martin Wolf, Naomi Klein, Norman Mailer, Parag Khanna, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Republic of Letters, Ronald Reagan, sceptred isle, Scramble for Africa, Silicon Valley, Steven Pinker, the new new thing, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, transcontinental railway, upwardly mobile

Now the Anglo-American hegemony-often hotly disputed by anti-American liberals – was wholly underpinned by rampant capitalism, represented by Margaret Thatcher’s premiership in Britain and Ronald Reagan’s two-term presidency in the United States. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 this new global culture would morph into the worldwide cultural revolution that would become Globish. The eerie decade that preceded the crisis of 2001 was the first in a century in which the world was no longer in the shadow of war. Francis Fukuyama declared ‘the End of History’. It was during this unreal and optimistic hiatus that the little term coined by Jean-Paul Nerrière in 1995, ‘Globish’ – simple, inelegant and almost universal-first gained currency. Now Globish began to emerge, in the words of The Times, as ‘the language of the present and the future’, the worldwide dialect of the third millennium.


pages: 281 words: 95,852

The Googlization of Everything: by Siva Vaidhyanathan

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", 1960s counterculture, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, AltaVista, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, borderless world, Burning Man, Cass Sunstein, choice architecture, cloud computing, commons-based peer production, computer age, corporate social responsibility, correlation does not imply causation, creative destruction, data acquisition, death of newspapers, digital divide, digital rights, don't be evil, Firefox, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full text search, global pandemic, global village, Google Earth, Great Leap Forward, Howard Rheingold, Ian Bogost, independent contractor, informal economy, information retrieval, John Markoff, Joseph Schumpeter, Kevin Kelly, knowledge worker, libertarian paternalism, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, moral panic, Naomi Klein, Network effects, new economy, Nicholas Carr, PageRank, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, pirate software, radical decentralization, Ray Kurzweil, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, side project, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, single-payer health, Skype, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, social web, Steven Levy, Stewart Brand, technological determinism, technoutopianism, the long tail, The Nature of the Firm, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Thorstein Veblen, Tyler Cowen, urban decay, web application, Yochai Benkler, zero-sum game

Abigail Cutler, “Penetrating the Great Firewall: Interview with James Fallows,” Atlantic, February 19, 2008; James Fallows, “ ‘The Connection Has Been Reset,’ ” Atlantic, March 2008; Ronald Deibert et al., Access Denied: The Practice and Policy of Global Internet Filtering (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008). 51. Thomas Frank, One Market under God: Extreme Capitalism, Market Populism, and the End of Economic Democracy (New York: Doubleday, 2000). 52. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Pres, 1992). 53. Ideology, as the Cambridge University sociologist John Thompson argues, is “meaning in the service of power,” or a sense of how symbolic expressions support or challenge structures and habits of social domination. See John Thompson, Ideology and Modern Culture: Critical Social Theory in the Era of Mass Communication (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990). 54.


pages: 357 words: 99,684

Why It's Still Kicking Off Everywhere: The New Global Revolutions by Paul Mason

anti-globalists, back-to-the-land, balance sheet recession, bank run, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, business cycle, capital controls, capitalist realism, centre right, Chekhov's gun, citizen journalism, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, currency manipulation / currency intervention, currency peg, disinformation, do-ocracy, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, floating exchange rates, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, ghettoisation, illegal immigration, informal economy, land tenure, Leo Hollis, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, megacity, Mohammed Bouazizi, Naomi Klein, Network effects, New Journalism, Occupy movement, price stability, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rising living standards, short selling, Slavoj Žižek, Stewart Brand, strikebreaker, union organizing, We are the 99%, Whole Earth Catalog, WikiLeaks, Winter of Discontent, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, young professional

He calls the resulting phenomenon ‘capitalist realism’, defined as the widespread sense that not only is capitalism the only viable political and economic system, but also that it is now impossible even to imagine a coherent alternative to it … a pervasive atmosphere conditioning not only the production of culture but also the regulation of work and education, and acting as a kind of invisible barrier constraining action.11 Up to 2008, the left’s inability to imagine any alternative to capitalism was like a mirror image of the right’s triumphalism. The establishment’s tramline thinking on Islam and its theories of ‘durable authoritarianism’ conformed, like the rest of its ideology, to Francis Fukuyama’send of history’ thesis and the paeans of various commentators—Thomas Friedman foremost among them—to the triumph of globalization. Together, left and right created a shared fatalism about the future. The right believed that with indomitable power it could create whatever truth it wanted to. In a famous phrase, Karl Rove, senior advisor to then US President George W.


pages: 357 words: 99,456

Hate Inc.: Why Today’s Media Makes Us Despise One Another by Matt Taibbi

4chan, affirmative action, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Chelsea Manning, commoditize, crack epidemic, David Brooks, disinformation, Donald Trump, drone strike, failed state, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, false flag, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Glass-Steagall Act, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, green new deal, Howard Zinn, illegal immigration, immigration reform, interest rate swap, Julian Assange, Kickstarter, Marshall McLuhan, microdosing, moral panic, Nate Silver, no-fly zone, Parents Music Resource Center, Peter Thiel, pink-collar, Ponzi scheme, pre–internet, profit motive, quantitative easing, Ralph Nader, rent-seeking, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Rubik’s Cube, Saturday Night Live, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, social contagion, Stephen Hawking, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, Tipper Gore, traveling salesman, unpaid internship, WikiLeaks, working poor, Y2K

Friedman has no ideas that can’t be expressed in a catchphrase,” author David Plotz wrote, in a piece that was genuinely intended to be complimentary. Brooks meanwhile wrote an entire book called Bobos in Paradise about how rich New Yorkers had achieved the apex of consumer taste. This was like Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History, except the Brooks version was The End of the History of Buying Tasteful Furniture. Lineups full of themes like this are designed to make sure that readers—particularly upper-class readers—are never surprised or offended when they click on an op-ed page. Humor is discouraged because humor is inherently iconoclastic and trains audiences to think even powerful people are ridiculous (or at least as ridiculous as everyone else, which of course is a taboo thought).


pages: 328 words: 96,678

MegaThreats: Ten Dangerous Trends That Imperil Our Future, and How to Survive Them by Nouriel Roubini

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 2021 United States Capitol attack, 3D printing, 9 dash line, AI winter, AlphaGo, artificial general intelligence, asset allocation, assortative mating, autonomous vehicles, bank run, banking crisis, basic income, Bear Stearns, Big Tech, bitcoin, Bletchley Park, blockchain, Boston Dynamics, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, business process, call centre, carbon tax, Carmen Reinhart, cashless society, central bank independence, collateralized debt obligation, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, credit crunch, crony capitalism, cryptocurrency, currency manipulation / currency intervention, currency peg, data is the new oil, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, debt deflation, decarbonisation, deep learning, DeepMind, deglobalization, Demis Hassabis, democratizing finance, Deng Xiaoping, disintermediation, Dogecoin, Donald Trump, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, energy security, energy transition, Erik Brynjolfsson, Ethereum, ethereum blockchain, eurozone crisis, failed state, fake news, family office, fiat currency, financial deregulation, financial innovation, financial repression, fixed income, floating exchange rates, forward guidance, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, future of work, game design, geopolitical risk, George Santayana, Gini coefficient, global pandemic, global reserve currency, global supply chain, GPS: selective availability, green transition, Greensill Capital, Greenspan put, Herbert Marcuse, high-speed rail, Hyman Minsky, income inequality, inflation targeting, initial coin offering, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Internet of things, invention of movable type, Isaac Newton, job automation, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, junk bonds, Kenneth Rogoff, knowledge worker, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, low skilled workers, low-wage service sector, M-Pesa, margin call, market bubble, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, means of production, meme stock, Michael Milken, middle-income trap, Mikhail Gorbachev, Minsky moment, Modern Monetary Theory, money market fund, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, moral hazard, mortgage debt, Mustafa Suleyman, Nash equilibrium, natural language processing, negative equity, Nick Bostrom, non-fungible token, non-tariff barriers, ocean acidification, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, paradox of thrift, pets.com, Phillips curve, planetary scale, Ponzi scheme, precariat, price mechanism, price stability, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, Ralph Waldo Emerson, ransomware, Ray Kurzweil, regulatory arbitrage, reserve currency, reshoring, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, Salesforce, Satoshi Nakamoto, Savings and loan crisis, Second Machine Age, short selling, Silicon Valley, smart contracts, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, Stephen Hawking, TED Talk, The Great Moderation, the payments system, Thomas L Friedman, TikTok, too big to fail, Turing test, universal basic income, War on Poverty, warehouse robotics, Washington Consensus, Watson beat the top human players on Jeopardy!, working-age population, Yogi Berra, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game, zoonotic diseases

The Soviet Union and the United States even initiated détente in the 1970s and 1980s, with arms agreements, despite proxy wars still fought in the Middle East, Africa and Latin America. Thus, the risk of a nuclear exchange among great powers was vastly reduced. After the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War came to an end, our collective risks changed character. Francis Fukuyama proclaimed that humankind had reached its evolutionary apex—it was the end of history. Instead of World War III, we now had to worry about much less existential threats, such as obesity. Throughout the Cold War decades, economic crises and recessions were relatively mild, short, and without concurrent major financial disruption. Global climate change was visible only to experts.


pages: 337 words: 96,666

Practical Doomsday: A User's Guide to the End of the World by Michal Zalewski

accounting loophole / creative accounting, AI winter, anti-communist, artificial general intelligence, bank run, big-box store, bitcoin, blockchain, book value, Buy land – they’re not making it any more, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Carrington event, clean water, coronavirus, corporate governance, COVID-19, cryptocurrency, David Graeber, decentralized internet, deep learning, distributed ledger, diversification, diversified portfolio, Dogecoin, dumpster diving, failed state, fiat currency, financial independence, financial innovation, fixed income, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Haber-Bosch Process, housing crisis, index fund, indoor plumbing, information security, inventory management, Iridium satellite, Joan Didion, John Bogle, large denomination, lifestyle creep, mass immigration, McDonald's hot coffee lawsuit, McMansion, medical bankruptcy, Modern Monetary Theory, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, moral panic, non-fungible token, nuclear winter, off-the-grid, Oklahoma City bombing, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, paperclip maximiser, passive investing, peak oil, planetary scale, ransomware, restrictive zoning, ride hailing / ride sharing, risk tolerance, Ronald Reagan, Satoshi Nakamoto, Savings and loan crisis, self-driving car, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, supervolcano, systems thinking, tech worker, Ted Kaczynski, TED Talk, Tunguska event, underbanked, urban sprawl, Wall-E, zero-sum game, zoonotic diseases

Each time, it has culminated in the indiscriminate murder, imprisonment, or expropriation of the members of the out-group. Perhaps all this cruelty is in the rearview mirror. The world today is, in many respects, a more prosperous and peaceful place. But I’m reminded that in the early 1990s, after the fall of the Soviet Union, Francis Fukuyama—a noted political scientist—proclaimed “the end of history.” He explained that we had reached “the end-point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.” Fukuyama’s prediction was a fashionable thought back then; a bit over 20 years later, very few still agree with his view.


pages: 444 words: 107,664

The Secret Lives of Buildings: From the Ruins of the Parthenon to the Vegas Strip in Thirteen Stories by Edward Hollis

A Pattern Language, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, facts on the ground, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, gentrification, place-making, South China Sea, the scientific method, Wunderkammern

The events of that night represent the end of history, a term invented by the political economist Francis Fukuyama. Democratic capitalism defeated autocratic communism, bringing the last great ideological conflict to a close once and for all. But unlike the Hulme Crescents, the Berlin Wall, whose spectacular destruction marked Fukuyama’s “end of history,” was not obliterated. Indeed, as hated as it had been, the Wall soon took on something of the preciousness of the marble of the Parthenon, which dissolves and crumbles even as it is gathered. The strange afterlife of the Berlin Wall is the history of the end of history. ONCE UPON A TIME, an obscure woman stood on an obscure street in an obscure corner of Berlin.

Translated through centuries and transported across continents, this Venice is nothing like the robber republic that Marco Polo described. It’s a place for a relaxing weekend, nothing else. After the end of history, we take a break, sip a coffee, and take our snaps of monuments that used to change with history—and used to change it, too. They don’t seem to, anymore. IT IS TWELVE YEARS after the end of history. A Western merchant stands before an Eastern potentate in the Hall of Purple Lights in the Zhongnanhai Palace in Beijing. The brightly lacquered columns and glazed tiles of the old pleasure pavilion still evoke hours of imperial leisure.

Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice. The Futurists. It sounds like a band from Manchester, doesn’t it? The Berlin Wall In Which History Comes to an End HISTORY FOR SALE A young boy sells pieces of the Berlin Wall, Potsdam Square, Berlin, 10 March 1990. THE END OF HISTORY The Parthenon is dissolving into the atmosphere, but preparations have been made for the conclusion of its story. Bernard Tschumi’s new museum at the foot of the Acropolis contains an empty space the same size as the temple, ready to receive its remains should it ever become necessary to transfer them indoors.


pages: 350 words: 110,764

The Problem With Work: Feminism, Marxism, Antiwork Politics, and Postwork Imaginaries by Kathi Weeks

antiwork, basic income, call centre, cognitive dissonance, collective bargaining, conceptual framework, deskilling, feminist movement, financial independence, Ford paid five dollars a day, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, glass ceiling, Kim Stanley Robinson, late capitalism, low-wage service sector, means of production, Meghnad Desai, moral panic, new economy, New Urbanism, occupational segregation, pink-collar, post-Fordism, post-work, postindustrial economy, profit maximization, Shoshana Zuboff, social intelligence, two tier labour market, union organizing, universal basic income, W. E. B. Du Bois, wages for housework, women in the workforce, work culture , zero-sum game

To trace the lineages of contemporary anti-utopian discourse in the United States, I want to focus on two key texts produced at very different moments in the evolution of official US anti-utopianism, each of which was celebrated for both its persuasiveness and its prescience. The first of these, Karl Popper’s The Open Society and Its Enemies, first published in 1945, anticipated the Cold War threat to liberalism’s ideological ascendance and confidence; the second, Francis Fukuyama’s 1989 “The End of History?,” declared the end of that threat. Each text announces the dawn of a new political era and marks a specific moment of anti-utopian revival, when liberalism’s general distrust of utopianism reasserts itself in reaction to new events. Fascism was one of these threats, but the two authors agree that at least by 1950 the more pressing challenge was posed by communism (Fukuyama 1989, 9; Popper 1950, vii).1 As bookends to the Cold War, one mode of anti-utopianism expresses the anxieties of liberalism under siege while the other emerges from the confidence in liberalism’s triumph.

Fukuyama declares liberalism the winner, but not with the kind of confidence that accompanied declarations in the 1990s of liberalism’s unrivaled and world-historic ascendancy. In the transition from the Cold War era of superpower competition to the emergence of triumphant neoliberalism in the age of empire, Fukuyama’s then rather speculative claims (the title of the essay was a question: “The End of History?”) ossify into official common sense. The end of the Cold War and the threat to liberal politics that Popper so feared cleared the way for the rise of neoliberalism in its fundamentalist mode, a discourse that in many ways dominated the 1990s. Centered on the strident insistence that, in Margaret Thatcher’s famous formulation, there is no alternative, the neoliberal anti-utopianism of the 1990s seemed to be absolved of Popper’s regrets and relieved of Fukuyama’s nostalgia.

Beyond Gender: The New Politics of Work and Family. Edited by Brigid O’Farrell. Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center. Froines, Ann. 1992. “Renewing Socialist Feminism.” Socialist Review 22 (2): 125–31. Fromm, Erich. 1961. Marx’s Concept of Man. New York: Frederick Ungar. Fukuyama, Francis. 1989. “The End of History?” National Interest 16 (summer): 3–18. Genovese, Eugene D. 1974. Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made. New York: Pantheon. Geoghegan, Vincent. 1987. Utopianism and Marxism. New York: Methuen. Gheaus, Anca. 2008. “Basic Income, Gender Justice and the Costs of Gender-Symmetrical Lifestyles.”


pages: 385 words: 111,807

A Pelican Introduction Economics: A User's Guide by Ha-Joon Chang

"there is no alternative" (TINA), Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, antiwork, AOL-Time Warner, Asian financial crisis, asset-backed security, bank run, banking crisis, banks create money, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, borderless world, Bretton Woods, British Empire, call centre, capital controls, central bank independence, Charles Babbage, collateralized debt obligation, colonial rule, Corn Laws, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, deindustrialization, discovery of the americas, Eugene Fama: efficient market hypothesis, eurozone crisis, experimental economics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, George Akerlof, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, global value chain, Goldman Sachs: Vampire Squid, Gordon Gekko, Great Leap Forward, greed is good, Gunnar Myrdal, Haber-Bosch Process, happiness index / gross national happiness, high net worth, income inequality, income per capita, information asymmetry, intangible asset, interchangeable parts, interest rate swap, inventory management, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, James Watt: steam engine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, knowledge economy, laissez-faire capitalism, land bank, land reform, liberation theology, manufacturing employment, Mark Zuckerberg, market clearing, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, means of production, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Neal Stephenson, Nelson Mandela, Northern Rock, obamacare, offshore financial centre, oil shock, open borders, Pareto efficiency, Paul Samuelson, post-industrial society, precariat, principal–agent problem, profit maximization, profit motive, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, road to serfdom, Robert Shiller, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, savings glut, scientific management, Scramble for Africa, search costs, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, sovereign wealth fund, spinning jenny, structural adjustment programs, The Great Moderation, The Market for Lemons, The Spirit Level, The Theory of the Leisure Class by Thorstein Veblen, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, trade liberalization, transaction costs, transfer pricing, trickle-down economics, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, working-age population, World Values Survey

The Central European countries – Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia – fared better, especially after they joined the European Union in 2004, thanks to being more gradualist in their reform and to their better skill bases. But even in the case of these countries, it is difficult to hail the transition experience as a great success. The fall of the socialist bloc ushered in a period of ‘free-market triumphalism’. Some, such as the American (then) neo-con thinker Francis Fukuyama, pronounced the ‘end of history’ (no, not the end of the world) on the grounds that we had finally conclusively identified the best economic system in the form of capitalism. The fact that capitalism comes in many varieties, each with particular strengths and weaknesses, was blissfully ignored in the euphoric mood of the day.

Sutri, ‘Capital requirements for over-the-counter derivatives central counterparties’, IMF Working Paper, WP/13/3, 2013, p. 7, figure 1, downloadable from: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2013/wp1303.pdf. 10. G. Palma, ‘The revenge of the market on the rentiers: why neo-liberal reports of the end of history turned out to be premature’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, vol. 33, no. 4 (2009). 11. Lapavitsas, Profiting without Producing, p. 206, figure 2. 12. J. Crotty, ‘If financial market competition is so intense, why are financial firm profits so high?: Reflections on the current “golden age” of finance’, Working Paper no. 134 (Amherst, MA: PERI (Political Economy Research Institute), University of Massachusetts, April 2007). 13.


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How Not to Network a Nation: The Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet (Information Policy) by Benjamin Peters

Albert Einstein, American ideology, Andrei Shleifer, Anthropocene, Benoit Mandelbrot, bitcoin, Brownian motion, Charles Babbage, Claude Shannon: information theory, cloud computing, cognitive dissonance, commons-based peer production, computer age, conceptual framework, continuation of politics by other means, crony capitalism, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Graeber, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Davies, double helix, Drosophila, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, Gabriella Coleman, hive mind, index card, informal economy, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Jacquard loom, John von Neumann, Kevin Kelly, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Lewis Mumford, linear programming, mandelbrot fractal, Marshall McLuhan, means of production, megaproject, Menlo Park, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, mutually assured destruction, Network effects, Norbert Wiener, packet switching, Pareto efficiency, pattern recognition, Paul Erdős, Peter Thiel, Philip Mirowski, power law, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, scientific mainstream, scientific management, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, stochastic process, surveillance capitalism, systems thinking, technoutopianism, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, the strength of weak ties, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, transaction costs, Turing machine, work culture , Yochai Benkler

For example, sociologist Manuel Castells has developed an extensive argument detailing how the Soviet Union failed to enter the information age, which this book is in some ways a sideways response to, and legal scholar Lawrence Lessig used his experience observing the rapid deregulation and privatization in post-Soviet economic transition in the early 1990s as a formative analog for what he felt was an equally disastrous attitude about the supposed unregulability of cyberspace common in the late 1990s.10 Since then, scholars have recognized that the summary experiences of perhaps the last two great information frontiers of the twentieth-century—the rise of post-Soviet economic transition and the Internet—present not, as Francis Fukuyama infamously claimed, the end of history so much as a new chapter in it. Leading cyber legal scholar Yochai Benkler has argued for a middle way by observing how online modes of “commons-based peer production” sustain capitalist profit margins through collectivist forms of reputational altruistic communities that do not depend on individual self-interest.11 From the final chapters of Soviet history, we may begin to observe and puzzle through the perennial fact that, for many Western technologists and scholars, the promise of socialist collaboration shines brightest online today—a promise that the Soviet OGAS designers were among the first to foresee.


pages: 408 words: 108,985

Rewriting the Rules of the European Economy: An Agenda for Growth and Shared Prosperity by Joseph E. Stiglitz

"World Economic Forum" Davos, accelerated depreciation, Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, balance sheet recession, bank run, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Basel III, basic income, behavioural economics, benefit corporation, Berlin Wall, bilateral investment treaty, business cycle, business process, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon tax, central bank independence, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, corporate governance, corporate raider, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, credit crunch, deindustrialization, discovery of DNA, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial engineering, financial intermediation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gender pay gap, George Akerlof, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, hiring and firing, housing crisis, Hyman Minsky, income inequality, independent contractor, inflation targeting, informal economy, information asymmetry, intangible asset, investor state dispute settlement, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, labor-force participation, liberal capitalism, low interest rates, low skilled workers, market fundamentalism, mini-job, moral hazard, non-tariff barriers, offshore financial centre, open economy, Paris climate accords, patent troll, pension reform, price mechanism, price stability, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, regulatory arbitrage, rent-seeking, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, selection bias, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, sovereign wealth fund, TaskRabbit, too big to fail, trade liberalization, transaction costs, transfer pricing, trickle-down economics, tulip mania, universal basic income, unorthodox policies, vertical integration, zero-sum game

However, the aggressive free-market approach of Margaret Thatcher and the fall of the Berlin Wall resulted in a major change in this balance, based on an excessive confidence in markets. In the clash between two competing systems, Communism and capitalism, the latter seemed to have triumphed absolutely. Some, like Francis Fukuyama, went so far as to proclaim “the end of history,” prophesying that the entire world would eventually appreciate the wisdom of liberalism, capitalism, and democracy. This triumphalism paved the way for a shrinking role for the state. This confidence in the market has taken more than a few body blows since 1989. Above all, the 2008 financial crisis laid bare deep structural shortcomings.


pages: 300 words: 106,520

The Nanny State Made Me: A Story of Britain and How to Save It by Stuart Maconie

"there is no alternative" (TINA), banking crisis, basic income, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, British Empire, Bullingdon Club, cognitive dissonance, collective bargaining, Corn Laws, David Attenborough, Desert Island Discs, don't be evil, Downton Abbey, driverless car, Elon Musk, Etonian, Extinction Rebellion, failed state, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, G4S, gentrification, Golden age of television, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, Greta Thunberg, helicopter parent, hiring and firing, housing crisis, Jeremy Corbyn, job automation, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, North Sea oil, Own Your Own Home, plutocrats, post-truth, post-war consensus, rent control, retail therapy, Right to Buy, road to serfdom, Russell Brand, Silicon Valley, Stephen Fry, surveillance capitalism, The Chicago School, universal basic income, Winter of Discontent

On the contrary, I think most nurses, teachers, doctors, care workers, emergency-service personnel and the rest can be trusted with our children and our lives. In fact, that’s exactly what we do every day. Recent history tells us again and again that, more often than not, it’s those in the boardroom, the smooth ennobled fellow or his wideboy chum, who can’t be trusted. Even Francis Fukuyama, the US intellectual who, dizzy with excitement at the collapse of communism, wrote the once much lauded but latterly mocked The End of History (a confident assertion of the triumph of Western capitalist democracies and neoliberalism), now says that public ownership is no bad thing. If you mean redistributive programmes that try to redress this big imbalance in both incomes and wealth that has emerged then, yes, I think not only can it come back, it ought to come back.


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Boom and Bust: A Global History of Financial Bubbles by William Quinn, John D. Turner

accounting loophole / creative accounting, Alan Greenspan, algorithmic trading, AOL-Time Warner, bank run, banking crisis, barriers to entry, Bear Stearns, behavioural economics, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bitcoin, blockchain, book value, Bretton Woods, business cycle, buy and hold, capital controls, Celtic Tiger, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Corn Laws, corporate governance, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, cryptocurrency, debt deflation, deglobalization, Deng Xiaoping, different worldview, discounted cash flows, Donald Trump, equity risk premium, Ethereum, ethereum blockchain, eurozone crisis, fake news, financial deregulation, financial intermediation, Flash crash, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, government statistician, Greenspan put, high-speed rail, information asymmetry, initial coin offering, intangible asset, Irish property bubble, Isaac Newton, Japanese asset price bubble, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, land bank, light touch regulation, low interest rates, margin call, market bubble, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, moral hazard, mortgage debt, negative equity, Network effects, new economy, Northern Rock, oil shock, Ponzi scheme, quantitative easing, quantitative trading / quantitative finance, railway mania, Right to Buy, Robert Shiller, Shenzhen special economic zone , short selling, short squeeze, Silicon Valley, smart contracts, South Sea Bubble, special economic zone, subprime mortgage crisis, technology bubble, the built environment, total factor productivity, transaction costs, tulip mania, urban planning

Since people used the Internet increasingly often, its revolutionary potential was widely apparent, and the Internet itself was 163 BOOM AND BUST a powerful means of spreading the new era narrative.50 In some cases, these theories encompassed broader sociological and political changes as well as technological ones. In a nod to Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History, perhaps the most influential new era narrative of the time, a 1997 article in Foreign Affairs argued that ‘changes in technology, ideology, employment, and finance’ had precipitated ‘the end of the business cycle’.51 While new era ideas look foolish with hindsight, as of 2000, pessimistic forecasters had been crying wolf for so long that their warnings were easy to ignore.


pages: 395 words: 103,437

Becoming Kim Jong Un: A Former CIA Officer's Insights Into North Korea's Enigmatic Young Dictator by Jung H. Pak

anti-communist, Boeing 747, clean water, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, cryptocurrency, death from overwork, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, facts on the ground, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Great Leap Forward, Mark Zuckerberg, Nelson Mandela, new economy, risk tolerance, Rubik’s Cube, Saturday Night Live, Silicon Valley, Steve Jobs, uranium enrichment

After five decades of the Cold War, in which the United States and the Soviet Union had locked horns in an ideological confrontation, the West rejoiced in the collapse of the Soviet Union, seeing the event as a victory for liberal democracy and capitalism. The American political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously declared “the end of history.” The United States and Vietnam, where a hot war had punctuated the era of cold peace, normalized ties in 1995, a reconciliation that seemed to demonstrate to most observers that the world would now be marked by peaceful coexistence, with Washington as the global leader. Indeed, armed conflict decreased dramatically in the period between 1992 and 2003, and champions of globalization believed that mankind was on a linear path of progress with Western-style governance and economic models leading the way in knitting together the international community.


pages: 388 words: 111,099

Democracy for Sale: Dark Money and Dirty Politics by Peter Geoghegan

4chan, Adam Curtis, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, American Legislative Exchange Council, anti-globalists, basic income, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Cambridge Analytica, centre right, corporate raider, crony capitalism, data science, deepfake, deindustrialization, demographic winter, disinformation, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, East Village, Etonian, F. W. de Klerk, fake news, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Gehry, Greta Thunberg, invisible hand, James Dyson, Jeremy Corbyn, John Bercow, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, military-industrial complex, moral panic, Naomi Klein, Nelson Mandela, obamacare, offshore financial centre, open borders, Overton Window, Paris climate accords, plutocrats, post-truth, post-war consensus, pre–internet, private military company, Renaissance Technologies, Robert Mercer, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Snapchat, special economic zone, Steve Bannon, surveillance capitalism, tech billionaire, technoutopianism, Torches of Freedom, universal basic income, WikiLeaks, Yochai Benkler, éminence grise

In 1999 and 2000, the Hudson Institute, a think tank whose funders also included Richard Mellon Scaife and the Koch brothers, organised two conferences in Washington and Berkshire to bring together leading figures in British and American conservatism.42 As authors Michael Kenny and Nick Pearce note in their history of the Anglosphere, the Hudson conferences proved crucial to the idea’s revival. Among the delegates were Thatcher, future Brexit minister David Davis, the influential Daily Telegraph owner Conrad Black, and prominent commentators such as James C. Bennett, John O’Sullivan and Francis Fukuyama, the neo-conservative historian who had prematurely prophesied the “the end of history” after the fall of communism. Many of the main contributors subsequently wrote books and articles proselytising for the Anglosphere, which often appeared in outlets owned by Black and Rupert Murdoch.43 In Washington, John Hulsman, a policy analyst at Heritage, called on “Britain to join an alternate future path, one that recognises that its natural economic and political partner remains the US, and not the European Union”.44 Somewhat ironically, it was the global financial meltdown from 2008 that propelled the Anglosphere into the centre of the conservative imagination.


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The Economics of Enough: How to Run the Economy as if the Future Matters by Diane Coyle

accounting loophole / creative accounting, affirmative action, Alan Greenspan, An Inconvenient Truth, bank run, banking crisis, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, bonus culture, Branko Milanovic, BRICs, business cycle, call centre, carbon tax, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, classic study, collapse of Lehman Brothers, conceptual framework, corporate governance, correlation does not imply causation, Credit Default Swap, deindustrialization, demographic transition, Diane Coyle, different worldview, disintermediation, Edward Glaeser, endogenous growth, Eugene Fama: efficient market hypothesis, experimental economics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Financial Instability Hypothesis, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, George Akerlof, Gini coefficient, global supply chain, Gordon Gekko, greed is good, happiness index / gross national happiness, hedonic treadmill, Hyman Minsky, If something cannot go on forever, it will stop - Herbert Stein's Law, illegal immigration, income inequality, income per capita, industrial cluster, information asymmetry, intangible asset, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, Jane Jacobs, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, Kenneth Rogoff, knowledge economy, light touch regulation, low skilled workers, market bubble, market design, market fundamentalism, megacity, Network effects, new economy, night-watchman state, Northern Rock, oil shock, Paradox of Choice, Pareto efficiency, principal–agent problem, profit motive, purchasing power parity, railway mania, rising living standards, Robert Solow, Ronald Reagan, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), Silicon Valley, social contagion, South Sea Bubble, Steven Pinker, tacit knowledge, The Design of Experiments, The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid, The Market for Lemons, The Myth of the Rational Market, The Spirit Level, the strength of weak ties, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, transfer pricing, tulip mania, ultimatum game, University of East Anglia, vertical integration, web application, web of trust, winner-take-all economy, World Values Survey, zero-sum game

I watched the events, holding my breath in case it all went wrong at the last minute, on an ancient small black-and-white television in the depths of the English countryside. It couldn’t have been more exhilarating. Seeing the images again, twenty years on, was still an emotional experience. After the drama of the end of communism came the debate. Even those who found Francis Fukuyama’s famous and triumphal declaration of “The End of History” abrasive had to acknowledge that the philosophical basis of communism and economic planning was in tatters.1 In the economic sphere, the first chance people on each side of the divide had had for an honest look at each other’s way of life made it clear that the capitalist economies had massively outperformed the centrally planned ones.2 In the political sphere, there was no question about the huge costs imposed by repression, conformism, and the absence of civil liberties on countless individuals.

Happiness and Economics: How the Economy and Institutions Affect Human Well-Being. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ———. 2007. “Should National Happiness Be Maximized?” Working Paper No. 306. Zurich: University of Zurich, Institute for Empirical Research in Economics. Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press. Galbraith, John Kenneth. 1952. American Capitalism—The Concept of Countervailing Power. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ———. 1958. The Affluent Society. New York: Penguin. Garber, Peter. 1989. “Tulipmania.” Journal of Political Economy 97:3, pp. 535–60. ———. 1990.

., 127–28 Calculus of Consent, The: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy (Buchanan and Tullock), 242 call centers, 131, 133, 161 Cameron, David, 288 capitalism: China and, 234; communism and, 96, 182–83, 209–13, 218, 226, 230, 239–40; community and, 27, 51, 65, 117–18, 137, 141, 152–54; cultural effects of, 25–29, 230–38; current crisis of, 6–9; democracy and, 230–38; Engels on, 14; fairness and, 134, 137, 149; growth and, 268, 275, 290, 293, 297; happiness and, 25–29, 33, 45, 53–54; historical perspective on, 3, 6, 14; institutions and, 240; market failure and, 226–30; Marx on, 14; measurement and, 182; mercantile economy and, 27–28; nutrition and, 10; profit–oriented, 18; Protestant work ethic and, 13–14; protests against, 211–13; rethinking meaning of, 9; social effects of, 25–26; values and, 209–13, 218, 226, 230–32, 235–36; well-being and, 137–39 carbon prices, 70–71 celebrities, 33 charitable giving, 33, 141 Checkpoint Charlie, 147 China, 161, 262, 280; capitalism and, 234; carbon emissions and, 63; changed demographic structure of, 90; convergence and, 122; declining population in, 98; energy use in, 63, 65; global manufacturing and, 149; inequality and, 125–26; Mao and, 10; middle class of, 125–26; as next major power, 94; one–child policy and, 95–96; population growth and, 95–96; purchasing power parity (PPP) and, 306n19; rise in wealth of, 81, 122–23, 125, 212; savings and, 87, 94, 100, 108; wage penalties and, 133; World Bank influence and, 163 cities, 308n29; face-to-face contact and, 165–68; size and, 165–66; structural changes in, 165–70; urban clustering and, 166 City of London, 147, 221 Clemens, Michael, 81 climate change, 5–7, 17, 24, 90, 238; carbon prices and, 70–71; Copenhagen summit and, 62, 64–65, 68, 162, 292; domestic dissent and, 66–71; future and, 75–83; geological history and, 69; global warming and, 57, 64, 66, 68; greenhouse gases and, 23, 29, 35, 59, 61–63, 68, 70–71, 83; Himalayan glaciers and, 66–67; incandescent light bulbs and, 59–60; InterAcademy Council and, 66–67; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and, 59, 66–69, 82, 297; Kyoto Protocol and, 62–64; lack of consensus on, 66–71; Montreal Protocol and, 59; policy dilemma of, 58–62; policy recommendations for, 267, 280, 297; politics and, 62–65; social welfare and, 71–75; technology and, 59–60, 198 Coachella Value Music Festival, 197 Cobb, John, 36 Coca Cola, 150 coherence, 49 Cold War, 93, 112, 147, 209, 213, 239, 252 Collier, Paul, 77–78, 80, 82 Commerzbank, 87 Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress, 37–38 communism: Berlin Wall and, 182, 226, 239; capitalism and, 96, 182–83, 209–13, 218, 226, 230, 239–40; Cold War and, 93, 112, 147, 209, 213, 239, 252; fall of, 209–13, 226, 239–40, 252; Iron Curtain and, 183, 239, 252; Leipzig marches and, 239; one-child policy and, 95–96; Velvet Revolution and, 239 community: civic engagement and, 140–41; globalization and, 148–49; intangible assets and, 149–52, 157, 161 (see also trust); public service and, 295; Putnam on, 140–41, 152–54 commuting, 45–47 Company of Strangers, The (Seabright), 148–49, 213–14 comprehensive wealth, 81–82, 202–3, 208, 271–73 consumerism, 22, 34, 45, 138 consumption: conspicuous, 11, 22, 45, 236; consumerism and, 22, 34, 45, 138; cutting, 61; downgrading status of, 11; downshifting and, 11, 55; Easterlin Paradox and, 39–44; global per capita, 72; of goods and services, 7, 10, 24, 35–36, 40, 82, 99, 161, 188, 191, 198, 214, 218, 228–29, 282; green lifestyle and, 55, 61, 76, 289, 293; growth and, 280, 295; happiness and, 22, 29, 40, 45; hedonic treadmill and, 40; increasing affluence and, 12; institutions and, 254, 263; Kyoto Protocol and, 63–64; measurement and, 181–82, 198; missing markets and, 229; natural resources and, 8–12, 58, 60, 79–82, 102, 112, 181–82; nature and, 58–61, 71–76, 79, 82; posterity and, 86, 104–5, 112–13; reduction of, 105; Slow Movement and, 27; trends in, 138; trilemma of, 13–14, 230–36, 275; values and, 229, 236 convergence, 5, 122 Copenhagen summit, 62, 64–65, 68, 162, 292 Crackberry, 205 Crafts, Nicholas, 156–57 credit cards, 2, 21, 136, 138, 283 Csikszentmilhalyi, Mihaly, 45–49 Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, The (Bell), 230, 235–36 Czechoslovakia, 239 Daly, Herman, 36 Damon, William, 48 Dasgupta, Partha, 61, 73, 77–78, 80, 82 David, Paul, 156 Dawkins, Richard, 118 debit cards, 2 decentralization, 7, 159, 218, 246, 255, 275, 291 defense budgets, 93 democracy, 2, 8, 16, 312n19; capitalism and, 230–38; culture and, 230–38; fairness and, 141; growth and, 268–69, 285–89, 296–97; institutions and, 242–43, 251–52, 262; nature and, 61, 66, 68; posterity and, 106; trust and, 175; values and, 230–35 Denmark, 125 Dickens, Charles, 131 Diener, Ed, 48, 49 Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality among Men (Rousseau), 114 distribution, 29, 306n22; Asian influence and, 123; bifurcation of social norms and, 231–32; consumerism and, 22, 34, 45, 138; Easterlin Paradox and, 39–44; fairness and, 115–16, 123–27, 134, 136; food and, 10, 34; of goods and services, 7, 10, 24, 35–36, 40, 82, 99, 161, 188, 191, 198, 214, 218, 228–29, 282; income, 34, 116, 123–27, 134, 278; inequality and, 123 (see also inequality); institutions and, 253; measurement and, 181, 191–99, 202; paradox of prosperity and, 174; policy recommendations for, 276, 278; posterity and, 87, 94; trust and, 151, 171; unequal countries and, 124–30; values and, 226 Dorling, Danny, 224, 307n58, 308n34 Douglas, Michael, 221 downshifting, 11, 55 downsizing, 175, 246, 255 drugs, 44, 46, 137–38, 168–69, 191, 302n47 Easterlin, Richard, 39 Easterlin Paradox, 39–44 eBay, 198 Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity project, The (TEEB), 78–79 economies of scale, 253–58 Economy of Enough, 233; building blocks for, 12–17; first ten steps for, 294–98; growth and, 182; happiness and, 24; institutions and, 250–51, 258, 261–63; living standards and, 13, 65, 78–79, 106, 113, 136, 139, 151, 162, 190, 194, 267; Manifesto of, 18, 267–98; measurement and, 182, 186–88, 201–7; nature and, 59, 84; Ostrom on, 250–51; posterity and, 17, 85–113; values and, 217, 233–34, 238; Western consumers and, 22 (see also consumption) Edinburgh University, 221 efficiency, 2, 7; evidence–based policy and, 233–34; fairness and, 126; Fama hypothesis and, 221–22; happiness and, 9, 29–30, 61; institutions and, 245–46, 254–55, 261; limits to, 13; nature and, 61–62, 69, 82; network effects and, 253, 258; productivity and, 13 (see also productivity); trilemma of, 13–14, 230–36, 275; trust and, 158–59; values and, 210, 215–16, 221–35 Ehrlich, Paul, 70 e-mail, 252, 291 “End of History, The” (Fukuyama), 239 Engels, Friedrich, 14 Enlightenment, 7 Enron, 145 environmentalists. See nature European Union, 42, 59, 62, 162–63, 177, 219 Evolution of Cooperation, The (Axelrod), 118–19 “Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism, The” (Trivers), 118 externalities, 15, 70, 80, 211, 228–29, 249, 254 Facebook, 289 face-to-face contact, 7, 147, 165–68 fairness: altruism and, 118–22; antiglobalization and, 115; bankers and, 115, 133, 139, 143–44; behavioral econoics and, 116–17, 121; bonuses and, 87–88, 115, 139, 143–44, 193, 221, 223, 277–78, 295; capitalism and, 134, 137, 149; consequences for growth, 135–36; criticism of poor and, 142; democracy and, 141; emotion and, 118–19, 137; game theory and, 116–18, 121–22; government and, 121, 123, 131, 136; gratitude and, 118; growth and, 114–16, 121, 125, 127, 133–37; happiness and, 53; health issues and, 137–43; high salaries and, 130, 143–44, 193, 223, 277–78, 286, 296; inequality and, 115–16, 122–43; innate sense of, 114–19; innovation and, 121, 134; morals and, 116–20, 127, 131, 142, 144, 221; philosophy and, 114–15, 123; politics and, 114–16, 125–31, 135–36, 140–44; productivity and, 131, 135; Putnam on, 140–41; self-interest and, 114–22; social corrosiveness of, 139–44; social justice and, 31, 43, 53, 65, 123, 164, 224, 237, 286; statistics and, 115, 138; superstar effect and, 134; sustainability and, 115; technology and, 116, 131–34, 137; tit-for-tat response and, 118–19; trilemma of, 13–14, 230–36, 275; trust and, 139–44, 150, 157, 162, 172, 175–76; ultimatum game and, 116–17; unequal countries and, 124–30; wage penalties and, 133; well-being and, 137–43; World Values Survey and, 139 Fama, Eugene, 221–22 faxes, 252 Federal Reserve, 145 Ferguson, Niall, 100–101 financial crises: actions by governments and, 104–12; bubbles and, 3 (see also bubbles); capitalism and, 6–9 (see also capitalism); contracts and, 149–50; crashes and, 3, 28, 161, 244, 283; current, 54, 85, 90–91, 145; debt legacy of, 90–92; demographic implosion and, 95–100; goodwill and, 150; government debt and, 100–104; Great Depression and, 3, 28, 35, 61, 82, 150, 208, 281; growth debt and, 85–86; historical perspective on, 3–4; institutional blindness to, 87–88; intangible assets and, 149–50; intrusive regulatory practices and, 244; pension burden of, 92–95; as political crisis, 8–9; statistics of, 145; stimulus packages and, 91, 100–103, 111; structural change and, 25; total cost of current, 90–91; trust and, 88–89 (see also trust); weightless activities and, 150; welfare burden of, 92–95 Financial Times, 257 Fitzgerald, F.


Human Frontiers: The Future of Big Ideas in an Age of Small Thinking by Michael Bhaskar

"Margaret Hamilton" Apollo, 3D printing, additive manufacturing, AI winter, Albert Einstein, algorithmic trading, AlphaGo, Anthropocene, artificial general intelligence, augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, backpropagation, barriers to entry, basic income, behavioural economics, Benoit Mandelbrot, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Big Tech, Bletchley Park, blockchain, Boeing 747, brain emulation, Brexit referendum, call centre, carbon tax, charter city, citizen journalism, Claude Shannon: information theory, Clayton Christensen, clean tech, clean water, cognitive load, Columbian Exchange, coronavirus, cosmic microwave background, COVID-19, creative destruction, CRISPR, crony capitalism, cyber-physical system, dark matter, David Graeber, deep learning, DeepMind, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, Demis Hassabis, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, deplatforming, discovery of penicillin, disruptive innovation, Donald Trump, double entry bookkeeping, Easter island, Edward Jenner, Edward Lorenz: Chaos theory, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, endogenous growth, energy security, energy transition, epigenetics, Eratosthenes, Ernest Rutherford, Eroom's law, fail fast, false flag, Fellow of the Royal Society, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, germ theory of disease, glass ceiling, global pandemic, Goodhart's law, Google Glasses, Google X / Alphabet X, GPT-3, Haber-Bosch Process, hedonic treadmill, Herman Kahn, Higgs boson, hive mind, hype cycle, Hyperloop, Ignaz Semmelweis: hand washing, Innovator's Dilemma, intangible asset, interchangeable parts, Internet of things, invention of agriculture, invention of the printing press, invention of the steam engine, invention of the telegraph, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, ITER tokamak, James Watt: steam engine, James Webb Space Telescope, Jeff Bezos, jimmy wales, job automation, Johannes Kepler, John von Neumann, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, Kevin Kelly, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, Large Hadron Collider, liberation theology, lockdown, lone genius, loss aversion, Louis Pasteur, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, megacity, megastructure, Menlo Park, Minecraft, minimum viable product, mittelstand, Modern Monetary Theory, Mont Pelerin Society, Murray Gell-Mann, Mustafa Suleyman, natural language processing, Neal Stephenson, nuclear winter, nudge unit, oil shale / tar sands, open economy, OpenAI, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, PageRank, patent troll, Peter Thiel, plutocrats, post scarcity, post-truth, precautionary principle, public intellectual, publish or perish, purchasing power parity, quantum entanglement, Ray Kurzweil, remote working, rent-seeking, Republic of Letters, Richard Feynman, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, secular stagnation, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Simon Kuznets, skunkworks, Slavoj Žižek, sovereign wealth fund, spinning jenny, statistical model, stem cell, Steve Jobs, Stuart Kauffman, synthetic biology, techlash, TED Talk, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Bayes, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Thomas Malthus, TikTok, total factor productivity, transcontinental railway, Two Sigma, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, universal basic income, uranium enrichment, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, When a measure becomes a target, X Prize, Y Combinator

For example, no one really has a concrete suggestion for what, after the collapse of communism, might advantageously replace capitalism or liberal democracy as the dominant principles of world organisation, or even whether this is possible. Concepts like democracy and capitalism are commonly assumed to be in crisis. Yet without clear directions for the future or any replacements, they lurch on. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Francis Fukuyama noticed the phenomenon, famously (and more optimistically) calling it the ‘End of History’. His hypothesis has been mocked as the epitome of liberal overreach, but it's also widely misunderstood. He neither believed nor argued that events, including those of the highest significance, would stop, just that the principles and institutions of government and politics were unlikely to develop much further.

., Rzhetsky, Andrey, and Evans, James A. (2015), ‘Tradition and Innovation in Scientists’ Research Strategies’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 80 No. 5 Franklin, Daniel (ed.) (2017), Megatech: Technology in 2050, London: Economist Books Franklin, Daniel, with John Andrews (eds) (2012), Megachange: The World in 2050, London: Economist Books Frase, Peter (2016), Four Futures: Life After Capitalism, London: Verso Freedman, Lawrence (2018), The Future of War: A History, London: Penguin Freeman, Charles (2003), The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason, London: Pimlico Fukuyama, Francis (1992), The End of History and The Last Man, London: Hamish Hamilton Funk, Russell, and Owens-Smith, Jason (2017), ‘A Dynamic Network Measure of Technological Change’, Management Science, Vol. 63 No. 3, pp. 791–817 Furman, Jeffrey L., and Stern, Scott (2011), ‘Climbing atop the Shoulders of Giants: The Impact of Institutions on Cumulative Research’, American Economic Review, Vol. 101 No. 5, pp. 1933–63 Garde, Damian, and Saltzman, Jonathan (2020), ‘The story of mRNA: How a once-dismissed idea became a leading technology in the Covid vaccine race’, Stat, accessed 23 December 2020, available at https://www.statnews.com/2020/11/10/the-story-of-mrna-how-a-once-dismissed-idea-became-a-leading-technology-in-the-covid-vaccine-race/ Gastfriend, Eric (2015), ‘90% of all the scientists that ever lived are alive today’, Future of Life Institute, accessed 27 July 2019, available at https://futureoflife.org/2015/11/05/90-of-all-the-scientists-that-ever-lived-are-alive-today/ Gay, Peter (2009), Modernism: The Lure of Heresy, From Baudelaire to Beckett and Beyond, London: Vintage Gertner, Jon (2012), The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation, New York: Penguin Ginsberg, Benjamin (2013), The Fall of the Faculty: The Rise of the All-Administrative University and Why It Matters, New York: Oxford University Press Gladwell, Malcolm (2008), ‘In the Air: Who says big ideas are rare?’

., and Uzzi, Brian (2007), ‘The Increasing Dominance of Teams in Production of Knowledge’, Science, Vol. 316 No. 5827, pp. 1036–9 Xinhua (2019), ‘China to build scientific research station on Moon's south pole’, Xinhua, accessed 18 January 2021, available at http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-04/24/c_138004666.htm Yueh, Linda (2018), The Great Economists: How Their Ideas Can Help Us Today, London: Penguin Viking Index ‘0,10’ exhibition 103 ‘0-I’ ideas 31 Aadhaar 265 abstraction 103 AC motor 287, 288 academia 209 Académie des sciences 47 Adam (robot) 235–6 Adams, John 211 Adler, Alfred 188 Adobe 265 Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) 180, 247, 253, 296, 317 AEG 34 aeroplanes 62–6, 68–70, 71, 219 Aeschylus 3 Africa 267, 279–80, 295 age/ageing 122, 158–60, 193 AGI see artificial general intelligence Agrarian Revolution 252 agricultural production 92–3 AI see artificial intelligence Akcigit, Ufuk 193 Alexander the Great 159 Alexander, Albert 52 Alexandrian Library 4, 295, 304 algorithms 175, 185, 196, 224, 235, 245 aliens 240–1, 306, 308–9, 337 Allison, Jim 58 Alphabet 193, 225, 265, 294, 295 AlphaFold software 225–6, 227, 228–9, 233 AlphaGo software 226–7, 228, 233 AlQuraishi, Mohammed 225, 226, 229 Amazon 84–5, 214, 272 Amazon Prime Air 71 American Revolution 139 amino acids 223, 226 Ampère, André-Marie 74–5 Anaximander 35 ancestors 10–12 ancient Greeks 1–6, 7–8, 291, 303–4 Anderson, Kurt 106 Angkor Wat 43 anthrax 47–8, 51 Anthropocene 14–15 anti-reason 211–12 anti-science 211–12 antibacterials 234 antibiotics 38, 52–3, 124, 125, 217, 315 resistance to 235 Apollo missions 70, 315, 316, 317, 318 Apple 33, 85, 159, 185, 186, 193, 272, 296, 312 Aquinas, Thomas 36 AR see augmented reality archaeology 153–4 Archimedes 1–6, 7–8, 19, 27, 32, 37, 39, 291, 304 architecture 103, 115, 188 ARIA 297 Aristarchus 5 Aristotle 24, 108, 282, 304 Arkwright, Richard 25, 26, 34, 253 Armstrong, Louis 103 ARPA see Advanced Research Projects Agency art 99–104, 107–8, 176–7, 236, 321, 339 Artemis (Moon mission) 71, 218 artificial general intelligence (AGI) 226, 237–8, 249, 250, 310, 313, 330, 341 artificial intelligence (AI) 225–9, 233–41, 246–7, 248, 249–52, 262, 266, 300, 310, 312–13, 323, 329, 330, 331, 338 arts 152, 293 see also specific arts Artsimovich, Lev 147 arXiv 116 Asia 264, 267–8, 273, 275 Asimov, Isaac, Foundation 45 Astor, John Jacob 288 astronomy 30, 231, 232 AT&T 85, 181, 183, 185, 197 Ates, Sina T. 193 Athens 24, 295 Atlantis 154 augmented reality (AR) 241–2, 338 authoritarianism 112–13, 284 autonomous vehicles 71, 72, 219 ‘Axial Age’ 108 Azoulay, Pierre 317–18 Bach, J.S. 236 bacillus 46 Bacon, Francis 25, 259 bacteria 38, 46, 53 Bahcall, Safi 31 Ballets Russes 99–100 Baltimore and Ohio railway 67 Banks, Iain M. 310 Bardeen, John 182 BASF 289 Batchelor, Charles 286 Bates, Paul 226 Bayes, Thomas 289 Beagle (ship) 36 Beethoven, Ludwig van 26 Beijing Genomics Institute 257, 294–5 Bell Labs 180–4, 186–8, 190, 206, 214, 217, 289, 296, 322 Benz, Karl 68, 219, 330 Bergson, Henri 109 Bessemer process 80 Bezos, Jeff 71, 326 Bhattacharya, Jay 201, 202, 321 Biden, Joe 59 Big Bang 117, 174, 181 Big Big Ideas 79–80 big ideas 5, 8, 11, 13–19 adoption 28 and an uncertain future 302–36 and art 99–103 artificial 223–38 and the Big Ideas Famine 13 and bisociation 36 blockers to 17–18 and breakthrough problems 46–73, 77, 86, 98, 222, 250, 301 and the ‘burden of knowledge’ effect 154–65, 175, 178, 235, 338 and business formation 95 ceiling 18 conception 37 definition 27–8, 40–1 Enlightenment 132–40, 136–40 era of 109–10 erroneous 176 evidence for 222, 223–54 execution 37 ‘fishing out’ mechanism 152 future of 45, 98, 302–36, 337–43 harmful nature 41–2 how they work 23–45 and the Idea Paradox 178–9, 187, 191, 217, 226, 250, 254, 283–4, 301, 312, 342 and the Kardashev Scale 337–43 long and winding course of 4, 5, 35–8, 136 and the low-hanging fruit paradox 149–54, 167, 178 and luck 38–9 moral 136, 138 nature of 169–72 necessity of 41–3 need for 42–3 normalisation of 171–5, 178 originality of 28 paradox of 143–79 and patents 97 process of 37–8 purchase 37–8 and resources 128 and rights 132–40 and ‘ripeness’ 39 and short-termism 192 slow death of 106–7 slowdown of 98 society's reaction to 216 and specialisation 156, 157–8 today 21–140 tomorrow 141–343 big pharma 31, 60, 185, 217–18, 226 Big Science 118–19 Bill of Rights 137 Bingham, Hiram 153 biology 243–8, 300 synthetic 245–6, 251, 310, 329 BioNTech 218, 298 biotech 195–6, 240, 246, 255–8, 262, 266, 307 bisociation 36 Björk 104 Black, Joseph 26 ‘black swan’ events 307, 310 Bletchley Park 180, 296 Bloom, Nick 91, 92, 93 Boeing 69, 72, 162, 165, 192, 238 Bohr, Niels 104, 118, 159 Boltsmann, Ludwig 188 Boston Consulting Group 204 Botha, P.W. 114 Bowie, David 107 Boyer, Herbert 243 Boyle, Robert 232 Brahe, Tycho 36, 229, 292 brain 166, 246–8, 299–300 collective 299, 300–1 whole brain emulations (‘ems’) 248–9, 341 brain drains 197 brain-to-machine interfaces 247–8 Branson, Richard 71 Brattain, Walter 182 Brazil 266–7, 268, 279 breakthrough organisations 294–9 breakthrough problems 46–73, 77, 86, 98, 222, 234, 250, 301 breakthroughs 2–5, 27–8, 32–7, 41, 129, 152, 156 and expedition novelty 333 hostility to 187 medical 58–60 missing 175 near-misses 160 nuclear power 145 price of 87–98 and short-termism 192 slowdown of 87, 94 society's reaction to 216 and universities 204 see also ‘Eureka’ moments breast cancer 94 Brexit referendum 2016: 208 Brin, Sergey 319, 326 Britain 24, 146, 259, 283, 297 see also United Kingdom British Telecom 196 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom 67 Brunelleschi 232 Bruno, Giordano 216 Buddhism 108, 175, 264–5, 340 Buhler, Charlotte 188–9 Buhler, Karl 188–9 ‘burden of knowledge’ effect 154–65, 175, 178, 235, 338 bureaucracy 198–87, 280–1 Bush, George W. 211 Bush, Vannevar 168, 314–15, 317 business start-ups 95–6 Cage, John 104 Callard, Agnes 111 Caltech 184 Cambridge University 75, 76, 124, 235–6, 257, 294–6 canals 67 cancer 57–61, 76, 93–4, 131, 234, 245, 318 research 59–61 capital and economic growth 88 gray 192, 196 human 275, 277 capitalism 36, 111–13, 186, 189, 191–8 CAR-Ts see chimeric antigen receptor T-cells carbon dioxide emissions 220–1 Cardwell's Law 283 Carey, Nessa 244 Carnap, Rudolf 189 Carnarvon, Lord 153 cars 289 electric 71 flying 71 Carter, Howard 153 Carter, Jimmy 58 Carthage 3, 43 Cartright, Mary 163 CASP see Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction Cassin, René 135 Catholic Church 206, 230 Cavendish Laboratory 76, 294 Cell (journal) 234 censorship 210–11 Census Bureau (US) 78 Centers for Disease Control 212 Cerf, Vint 253 CERN 118, 233, 239, 252, 296 Chain, Ernst 52, 60, 124 Champollion, Jean-François 155 Chang, Peng Chun 135 change 10–13, 18–19, 24 rapid 30, 32 resistance to 222 slowdown 85 chaos theory 163 Chaplin, Charlie 104 Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de 300 Charpentier, Emmanuelle 244, 256 chemistry 49, 56, 104, 117, 118, 124, 149–50, 159, 241, 244 chemotherapy 57 Chicago 10 chicken cholera 46 chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR-Ts) 58, 61 China 15, 25, 71–2, 111, 112, 138, 208, 213, 216, 255–64, 265, 266, 267, 268, 275, 277, 279, 280, 283, 284–5, 312, 313, 314, 319, 328 Han 259, 260 Ming 284, 308, 309 Qing 260 Song 24, 259–60, 306 Tang 259–60 Zhou 259 Christianity 108, 303–4, 340 Church, George 245 cities 270–2, 308–9, 340 civilisation collapse 42–4 decay 187 cleantech 195 climate change 219–21, 284, 313–14, 338 clinical trials 218 cliodynamics 339 coal 23, 24, 26, 80, 220 Cocteau, Jean 101 cognitive complexity, high 332–3 cognitive diversity 281–3 Cognitive Revolution 252 Cohen, Stanley N. 243, 244 collective intelligence 339 collectivism 282 Collison, Patrick 117, 272 colour 75 Coltrane, John 104 Columbian Exchange 177 Columbus 38 comfort zones, stepping outside of 334 communism 111, 133, 134, 173, 217, 284 companies creation 95–6 numbers 96–7 competition 87, 283 complacency 221–2 complexity 161–7, 178, 204, 208, 298, 302, 329 high cognitive 332–3 compliance 205–6 computational power 128–9, 168, 234, 250 computer games 107 computers 166–7, 240, 253 computing 254 see also quantum computing Confucianism 133, 259 Confucius 24, 108, 109, 282 Congressional Budget Office 82 connectivity 272 Conon of Samos 4 consciousness 248, 340 consequences 328–9 consolidation, age of 86 Constantine 303 convergence 174, 311–12 Copernicus 29, 30, 41, 152, 171, 229, 232, 292 copyright 195 corporations 204–5 cosmic background microwave radiation 117, 181 cotton weaving, flying shuttle 24–5 Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de 74–5 counterculture 106 Covid-19 (coronavirus) pandemic 13, 14, 15, 55, 86, 113–14, 193, 202, 208, 212, 218, 251–2, 263, 283–4, 297–8, 309, 318, 327 vaccine 125, 245 Cowen, Tyler 13, 82, 94–5, 221 cowpox 47 creativity 188, 283 and artificial intelligence 236 crisis in 108 decrease 106–8 and universities 203 Crete 43 Crick, Francis 119, 296 CRISPR 243, 244, 251, 255–8, 299 Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) 224–6, 228 Cronin, Lee 242 crop yields 92–3 cultural diversity 281–3 cultural homogenisation 177 cultural rebellion 106–7 Cultural Revolution 114, 305 culture, stuck 106 Cunard 67 Curie, Marie 104, 144, 203, 289–90, 332 Daniels, John T. 62–3 Daoism 259 dark matter/energy/force 338 DARPA see Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Darwin, Charles 34, 35–6, 37–8, 41, 77, 109, 118, 171, 289 Darwin, Erasmus 35 data 233 datasets, large 28 Davy, Sir Humphrey 149, 150 Debussy, Claude 100–1 decision-making, bad 43–4 Declaration of Independence 1776: 137 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen 1789: 137 DeepMind 225–9, 296 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 315 democracy 111–12 Deng Xiaoping 261 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 119, 223–4, 243, 251, 255, 339 DNA sequencing 56 Derrida, Jacques 109 Deutsch, David 126, 203 Diaghilev, Sergei 99–101 Diamond, Jared 42 Digital Age 180 digital technology 241–2, 243 diminishing returns 87, 91, 94, 97, 118, 123, 126, 130–1, 150, 161, 169, 173, 222, 250, 276, 285, 301 Dirac, Paul 159–60 disruption 34, 96, 109, 119, 157 diversity, cultural 281–3 DNA see deoxyribonucleic acid Dorling, Danny 171 Doudna, Jennifer 244, 251, 256 Douglas, Mary 290 Douthat, Ross 14, 106 drag 65 Drake equation 306 Drezner, Daniel 214 drones, delivery 71, 72 Drucker, Peter 189 drugs 55–7, 124, 235 Eroom's Law 55, 57, 61, 92–3, 119, 161, 234, 245, 338 and machine learning 234 research and development 55–7, 61, 92–4, 119, 161, 172–3, 217–18, 234, 245, 315, 338 see also pharmaceutical industry Duchamp, Marcel 103, 171 DuPont 184 Dutch East India Company 34 Dyson, Freeman 120 dystopias 305–8 East India Company 34 Easter Island 42–3 Eastern Europe 138 ecocides 42–3 economic growth 240, 272, 273, 316 endogenous 94 and ideas 88, 89–92, 95 process of 87–8 slowdown 82, 83, 84, 85, 178 economics 87–9, 98, 339, 340 contradictions of 87 Economist, The (magazine) 188 Edelman annual trust barometer 209 Edison, Thomas 183–4, 286–9, 290, 293 education 127, 277, 324–8 Einstein, Albert 11, 29, 74, 77, 104, 109, 117, 119, 124, 159–60, 203, 332 Eisenstein, Elizabeth 231 Eldredge, Niles 30 electric cars 71 electricity 11, 74–7, 81, 286–7, 289 electromagnetic fields 76 electromagnetic waves 75, 76 elements (chemical) 149–50 Elizabeth II 144–5 employment 204–5 Encyclopædia Britannica 97, 128, 155 ‘End of History’ 112 energy 337–8, 341–2 availability 85 use per capita 85 see also nuclear power engineering 243 England 25, 144–5, 309 Englert, François 118 Enlightenment 130, 136–40, 252 see also Industrial Enlightenment; neo-Enlightenment Eno, Brian 295 entrepreneurship, decline 96 epigenetics 164 epigraphy 236–7 epistemic polarisation 210 Epstein, David 334 Eratosthenes 5 Eroom's Law 55, 57, 61, 92–3, 119, 161, 234, 245, 338 ethical issues 256–7 Euclid 3, 304 ‘Eureka’ moments 2–5, 35, 36–7, 129, 163 Europe 95, 247, 258–60, 268, 268, 271, 283, 304, 308 European Space Agency 71 European Union (EU) 206, 216, 262, 266 Evans, Arthur 153 evolutionary theory 30, 35–6 expedition novelty 333 experimental spaces 296–8 Expressionism 104 Facebook 34, 159, 170, 197 Fahrenheit 232 failure, fear of 335 Faraday, Michael 75 FCC see Future Circular Collider FDA see Food and Drug Administration Federal Reserve (US) 82 Feigenbaum, Mitchell 163 fermentation 49 Fermi, Enrico 143, 159, 306 Fermi Paradox 306 Fernández-Armesto, Felipe 109 fertility rates 269 Feynman, Richard 77, 166, 332 film 104, 106–7, 108, 115 financialism 191–8, 206–7, 214, 217, 219 Firebird, The (ballet) 99–100 ‘first knowledge economy’ 25–6 First World War 54, 99, 104, 187, 188–9 Fisk, James 182 Fleming, Alexander 38, 52, 60, 332 flight 36, 62–6, 68–70, 71, 335 Flint & Company 64 flooding 220, 284 Florey, Howard 52, 60, 124, 332 Flyer, the 62–4, 66, 72 Foldit software 225 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 55, 60, 93, 212 food supply 81 Ford 34, 253 Ford, Henry 68, 104, 219 Fordism 81 Foucault, Michel 110 Fraenkel, Eduard 124 France 49–51, 54, 64, 67, 95, 279, 309, 332 franchises 31 Franklin, Benjamin 119, 211 Frederick the Great 292 French Revolution 137, 275 Freud, Sigmund 34, 36, 77, 104, 171, 188, 190, 216 frontier 278–9, 283–4, 302, 310–11 Fukuyama, Francis 111–12 fundamentalism 213 Future Circular Collider (FCC) 239 futurology 44 Gagarin, Yuri 70 Galen 303 Galileo 206, 231, 232, 291, 322 Galois, Évariste 159 GDPR see General Data Protection Regulation Gell-Mann, Murray 77 gene editing 243–4, 251, 255–8 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 206 General Electric (GE) 33, 184, 265, 288, 333 General Motors 289 Generation Z 86 genes 223–4 genetic engineering 243–4, 251, 253, 255–8 genetic science 163–4, 202 genius 26 genome, human 119, 202, 244, 255–7, 296, 313 genome sequencing 243–4 germ theory of disease 50–1, 53 Germany 54, 95, 96, 279, 283, 292, 332 Gesamtkunstwerk 99 Gibson, William 241 Glendon, Mary Ann 135 global warming 147 globalisation 177 Go 226–7 Gödel, Kurt 41, 168 Goldman Sachs 197 Goodhart's Law 199 Google 34, 85, 185, 197, 240, 272, 318 20 per cent time 319–20 Google Glass 241 Google Maps 86 Google Scholar 116 Google X 294 Gordon, Robert 13, 83, 94–5 Gouges, Olympe de 137 Gould, Stephen Jay 30 Gove, Michael 208 government 205, 207, 214, 216, 252, 267–8, 297 funding 185–6, 249, 252, 314–19, 321 GPT language prediction 234, 236 Graeber, David 13–14, 111 grants 120, 185–6, 195, 202, 316, 317, 319, 321–3 gravitational waves 117–18, 119 Great Acceleration 309–10 Great Convergence 255–301, 339 Great Disruption 96 Great Enrichment (Great Divergence) 23, 26, 258 Great Exhibition 1851: 293, 309 Great Stagnation Debate 13–14, 16, 17, 45, 72, 82–3, 87, 94–6, 129, 150, 240, 279, 338 Greenland 42 Gropius, Walter 103 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 82, 90, 128, 278, 318 GDP per capita 23, 78, 82 growth cultures 25 growth theory, endogenous 88–9, 94 Gutenberg, Johannes 36 Guzey, Alexey 200, 322 Haber, Fritz 332 Haber-Bosch process 289 Hadid, Zaha 152 Hahn, Otto 144 Hamilton, Margaret 316 Harari, Yuval Noah 114–15, 236 Harris, Robert 307 Harvard Fellows 200 Harvard, John 156 Harvey, William 34, 291–2 Hassabis, Demis 229, 233 Hayek, Friedrich 189 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 36 Heisenberg, Werner 41, 159, 168, 332 heliocentric theory 5, 29, 118, 232, 304 helium 145 Hendrix, Jimi 105 Henry Adams curve 85 Hero of Alexandria 39 Herper, Matthew 55 Hertz, Heinrich 76 Herzl, Theodor 188 Hesse, Herman 307 Hieron II, king of Syracuse 1–2 Higgs, Peter 118 Higgs boson 117–18, 119, 239 Hinduism 133 Hiroshima 144 Hitler, Adolf 138, 188 Hodgkin, Dorothy 124, 332 Hollingsworth, J.


pages: 406 words: 113,841

The American Way of Poverty: How the Other Half Still Lives by Sasha Abramsky

2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, American Legislative Exchange Council, bank run, basic income, benefit corporation, big-box store, collective bargaining, deindustrialization, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, ghettoisation, Gini coefficient, government statistician, guns versus butter model, housing crisis, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, indoor plumbing, job automation, Kickstarter, land bank, Mark Zuckerberg, Maui Hawaii, microcredit, military-industrial complex, mortgage debt, mortgage tax deduction, new economy, Occupy movement, off-the-grid, offshore financial centre, payday loans, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, Potemkin village, profit motive, Ronald Reagan, school vouchers, upwardly mobile, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, working poor, working-age population, Works Progress Administration

Skip forward forty years, however, and in many political circles that concern with addressing the needs of the worst-off, and with wrestling with markets’ imperfections, had largely vanished. In the post–Cold War world—a triumphalist environment that the political scientist Francis Fukuyama notoriously labeled “the end of history”—there were, quite simply, few to no breaks placed on the machinations of markets. The result was both a philosophical and practical breakdown in many of the networks of laws, regulatory agencies, and cultural practices designed to tame markets. The crisis that ensued is as much an existential one—of identity—as a practical economic mess.

We have a large population who are poor; economic opportunities are few and far between. On a year-to-year basis they’re going to have a lot of uncertainty trying to make long-term plans. Employment in Eastern Kentucky for men 25 to 60: about 65 percent are employed; nationally it’s about 85.” MARKETS RUN AMOK, SHIVERING IN THE RAINFOREST, AND THE END OF HISTORY Regional development alone, however, won’t be enough. After all, some problems, such as the massive growth in unemployment seen in the post-2008 years, have national implications. To tackle them, we need to marshal energies at a federal level. There will have to be an expansion in the resources available to meet the needs of the long-term unemployed and jobless, as well as resources to keep the short-term unemployed out of poverty and to preserve the assets of the working and middle classes during particularly acute economic downturns.


pages: 422 words: 113,830

Bad Money: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crisis of American Capitalism by Kevin Phillips

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, algorithmic trading, asset-backed security, bank run, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, Bernie Madoff, Black Swan, Bretton Woods, BRICs, British Empire, business cycle, buy and hold, collateralized debt obligation, computer age, corporate raider, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, crony capitalism, currency peg, diversification, Doha Development Round, energy security, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Gilder, Glass-Steagall Act, housing crisis, Hyman Minsky, imperial preference, income inequality, index arbitrage, index fund, interest rate derivative, interest rate swap, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, Kenneth Rogoff, large denomination, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, market bubble, Martin Wolf, Menlo Park, Michael Milken, military-industrial complex, Minsky moment, mobile money, money market fund, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, mortgage debt, Myron Scholes, new economy, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, old-boy network, peak oil, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, profit maximization, prosperity theology / prosperity gospel / gospel of success, Renaissance Technologies, reserve currency, risk tolerance, risk/return, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, Satyajit Das, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, short selling, sovereign wealth fund, stock buybacks, subprime mortgage crisis, The Chicago School, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade route

Technology guru George Gilder theologized that “it is the entrepreneurs who know the rules of the world and the laws of God.” Thomas Friedman, the New York Times columnist, enthused, “International finance has turned the world into a parliamentary system” that allows initiates “to vote every hour, every day through their mutual funds, their pension funds, their brokers.” Even historian Francis Fukuyama, normally sober, burbled that “liberal democracy combined with open market economics has become the only model a state could follow.”1 The Holy Grail had rarely been pursued with more passion than market-bewitched academicians brought to seeking financial capitalism’s roots in furthest antiquity.

In China, with its $1.4 trillion holdings, comments on how Beijing might or might not view the anemic U.S. currency sometimes came from officials of leading Communist Party bodies.2 Something went wrong in the 1990s after “the fall of Communism”; somebody forgot to explain the New World Order to the Russians and the Chinese. Instead, Anglo-Saxon speculative capitalism—in a grand misreading that may yet turn out to match the cupidity of the French Bourbons in 1789—decided to celebrate “the end of history” and the perceived vacuum of serious economic rivalry by staging the largest-ever orgy of debt and credit. If history had ended, thereby assuring the triumphal invulnerability of asset-backed securities and structured investment vehicles, well, then, let ’em roll. Of course, we now know that history had not ended; the muse had merely started learning Mandarin, Hindi, and Arabic, rereading Karl Polanyi and Hyman Minsky, and pondering what might befall a leading world economic power that so worshipped its markets as to entrust them to hedge funds, bad quantitative mathematics, and banks like Citigroup.


pages: 494 words: 116,739

Geek Heresy: Rescuing Social Change From the Cult of Technology by Kentaro Toyama

Abraham Maslow, Albert Einstein, Apollo 11, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, blood diamond, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, cognitive dissonance, commoditize, computer vision, conceptual framework, delayed gratification, digital divide, do well by doing good, Edward Glaeser, Edward Jenner, en.wikipedia.org, end world poverty, epigenetics, Erik Brynjolfsson, Evgeny Morozov, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, fundamental attribution error, gamification, germ theory of disease, global village, Hans Rosling, happiness index / gross national happiness, income inequality, invention of the printing press, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, Khan Academy, Kibera, knowledge worker, Larry Ellison, Lewis Mumford, liberation theology, libertarian paternalism, longitudinal study, M-Pesa, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, means of production, microcredit, mobile money, Neil Armstrong, Nelson Mandela, Nicholas Carr, North Sea oil, One Laptop per Child (OLPC), Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, pattern recognition, Peter Singer: altruism, Peter Thiel, post-industrial society, Powell Memorandum, randomized controlled trial, rent-seeking, RFID, Richard Florida, Richard Thaler, school vouchers, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, Stanford marshmallow experiment, Steve Jobs, Steven Pinker, technological determinism, technological solutionism, technoutopianism, TED Talk, The Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid, the long tail, Twitter Arab Spring, Upton Sinclair, Walter Mischel, War on Poverty, winner-take-all economy, World Values Survey, Y2K

Congressman Henry Waxman said of it, “History may look back and say this was the turning point on climate” (Parsons et al. 2014). Let’s hope it sticks. 14.Figures are as posted by the US Energy Information Administration (2010) and include only CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels in 2010. 15.Francis Fukuyama (1992) contended that liberal democracy represents the “end of history” – the summit and end point of human civilization, which other nations would eventually tend toward. The thesis has been heavily criticized, not least by Fukuyama himself. 16.Asimov (1942 [1991]), p. 126. Asimov’s thinking about the laws of robotics was philosophically much deeper than presented here, though none of it changes what I’m trying to say in these paragraphs.

Additional intrinsic growth would mean less material consumption and more involvement with self-transcendent ends. Other countries would likely follow. Seeking our own growth also takes the edge off paternalism. Humility is required in social causes, as privileged-world dogmas often cause damage. We should dispense with arrogant notions that we’ve reached some End of History.15 Today’s rich societies are, at best, adolescents with still a long way to go before they reach maturity. When everyone’s intrinsic growth is a common goal, relationships become closer to true partnerships. When Do We Intend to Start? Isaac Asimov was tired of dark robot stories. Tales involving what he called the “Frankenstein syndrome” always had humanity destroyed by its own creations.

Fried, Barbara. (2013). Beyond blame. Boston Review, June 28, 2013, www.bostonreview.net/forum/barbara-fried-beyond-blame-moral-responsibility-philosophy-law. Friedman, Thomas L. (2005). The World Is Flat: The Globalized World in the Twenty-First Century. Penguin. Fukuyama, Francis. (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. Free Press. Fuller, Robert W. (2004). Somebodies and Nobodies: Overcoming the Abuse of Rank. New Society Publishers. Fundación Paraguaya. (n.d.). Self-sufficient school, www.fundacionparaguaya.org.py/?page_id=741. Gallup and Purdue University. (2014). Great jobs great lives: The 2014 Gallup-Purdue index report, http://products.gallup.com/168857/gallup-purdue-index-inaugural-national-report.aspx.


pages: 504 words: 126,835

The Innovation Illusion: How So Little Is Created by So Many Working So Hard by Fredrik Erixon, Bjorn Weigel

Airbnb, Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, American ideology, asset allocation, autonomous vehicles, barriers to entry, Basel III, Bernie Madoff, bitcoin, Black Swan, blockchain, Blue Ocean Strategy, BRICs, Burning Man, business cycle, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Cass Sunstein, classic study, Clayton Christensen, Colonization of Mars, commoditize, commodity super cycle, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, crony capitalism, dark matter, David Graeber, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, discounted cash flows, distributed ledger, Donald Trump, Dr. Strangelove, driverless car, Elon Musk, Erik Brynjolfsson, Fairchild Semiconductor, fear of failure, financial engineering, first square of the chessboard / second half of the chessboard, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, general purpose technology, George Gilder, global supply chain, global value chain, Google Glasses, Google X / Alphabet X, Gordon Gekko, Greenspan put, Herman Kahn, high net worth, hiring and firing, hockey-stick growth, Hyman Minsky, income inequality, income per capita, index fund, industrial robot, Internet of things, Jeff Bezos, job automation, job satisfaction, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Just-in-time delivery, Kevin Kelly, knowledge economy, laissez-faire capitalism, low interest rates, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Mark Zuckerberg, market design, Martin Wolf, mass affluent, means of production, middle-income trap, Mont Pelerin Society, Network effects, new economy, offshore financial centre, pensions crisis, Peter Thiel, Potemkin village, precautionary principle, price mechanism, principal–agent problem, Productivity paradox, QWERTY keyboard, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, rent-seeking, risk tolerance, risk/return, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, savings glut, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, sovereign wealth fund, Steve Ballmer, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, subprime mortgage crisis, technological determinism, technological singularity, TED Talk, telemarketer, The Chicago School, The Future of Employment, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, total factor productivity, transaction costs, transportation-network company, tulip mania, Tyler Cowen, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, uber lyft, University of East Anglia, unpaid internship, Vanguard fund, vertical integration, Yogi Berra

“The Goliath of totalitarianism will be brought down by the David of the microchip,” mused conservative icon Ronald Reagan,22 who drew heavily from technology enthusiasts like George Gilder, an economist who later identified the billion-transistor chip as the cure to root out all economic evil.23 A British libertarian politician has predicted that the new digital age will be the end of politics.24 Neoconservatives similarly were quick to embrace the revolutionary promise of technology. In his thought-provoking but often misunderstood book The End of History and the Last Man, Francis Fukuyama charted the idea of a progressive relationship between technology in modern consumer culture and capitalism. It was the “ultimate victory of the VCR,” he argued, to have homogenized the world upon liberal economic principles.25 Twenty-five years later, after a crushing ideological defeat for the revolutionary view of new technology, Twitter was proposed as a contender for the Nobel Peace Prize.

At the sixty-fourth square, the pile of rise equaled the size of Mount Everest. 10.Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 41. 11.Levy, Love and Sex with Robots. 12.Holley, “Apple Co-founder on Artificial Intelligence.” 13.Romm, “Americans Are More Afraid of Robots Than Death.” 14.Smith and Anderson, “AI, Robotics, and the Future of Jobs.” 15.This section on Stafford Beer and Project Cybersyn builds on Medina, Cybernetic Revolutionaries. 16.Medina, Cybernetic Revolutionaries, 25. 17.Morozov, “The Planning Machine.” 18.Huebner, “A Possible Declining Trend for Worldwide Innovation,” 985. 19.Taleb, Antifragile. 20.Kelly, “The New Socialism.” 21.Mason, Postcapitalism. 22.The Economist, “Caught in the Net.” 23.Gilder, Microcosm. 24.Carswell, The End of Politics and the Birth of iDemocracy. 25.Fukuyama, The End of History, 98–108. 26.Kaminsky, “Iran’s Twitter Revolution.” 27.Nixon, “Lack of Innovation Leaves EU Trailing.” 28.OECD, “Territorial Review: Stockholm, Sweden 2006.” 29.Legrain, European Spring, 367. 30.Gordon, “Secular Stagnation.” 31.Gage, “The Venture Capital Secret.” 32.Marmer et al., “Startup Genome Report Extra,” 10. 33.Schumpeter’s vision of capitalism is explained in Schumpeter, The Theory of Economic Development and, in a different way, in Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. 34.For a discerning analysis of the similarities between Marx and Schumpeter, see Elliott, “Marx and Schumpeter on Capitalism’s Creative Destruction.” 35.Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1992), 61. 36.To avoid repetition in the book we will use terms like contestable innovation, big innovation, radical innovation, or game-changing innovation to describe the same phenomenon: innovation that contests markets. 37.Mokyr, “Long-Term Economic Growth and the History of Technology,” 4. 38.Broadberry et al., British Economic Growth. 39.Clark, A Farewell to Alms, 1. 40.Phelps, Mass Flourishing. 41.Our version of modern capitalism and its birth draws on several scholars such as Gregory Clark, David Landes, Joel Mokyr, and Edmund Phelps.

Frey, Carl Benedikt, and Michael A. Osborne. “The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation.” Paper, Sept. 17, 2013. At http://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf. Frum, David, “Paris Taxi Shortage: It’s about Jobs.” CNN, July 10, 2012. Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man. Simon & Schuster, 2006. Gabler, Alain, and Markus Poschke, “Experimentation by Firms, Distortions, and Aggregate Productivity.” Review of Economic Dynamics, 16.1 (2013): 26–38. Gage, Deborah, “The Venture Capital Secret: 3 out of 4 Start-ups Fail.” Wall Street Journal, Sept. 20, 2012.


pages: 387 words: 123,237

This Land: The Struggle for the Left by Owen Jones

Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Black Lives Matter, Boris Johnson, Boycotts of Israel, Brexit referendum, call centre, capitalist realism, collapse of Lehman Brothers, Corn Laws, coronavirus, COVID-19, deindustrialization, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, European colonialism, falling living standards, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Floyd, gig economy, green new deal, housing crisis, Jeremy Corbyn, lockdown, market fundamentalism, Naomi Klein, Neil Kinnock, Nelson Mandela, offshore financial centre, open borders, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, rent control, short selling, The Spirit Level, War on Poverty

After another failed challenge for the leadership, in the following years and decades Benn himself changed: no longer a figurehead for a movement seriously aspiring to power, he became more of a moral conscience, a comfort to the defeated fragments of the left. This was the iteration of Tony Benn I was familiar with. Growing up in the age of ‘The End of History’ – the title of political scientist Francis Fukuyama’s 1989 landmark essay, which argued that free-market liberal democracy was the endpoint of human development – I found him a reassuringly defiant, but isolated, voice challenging the neoliberal dogma of ‘There is no alternative’. In his final years, we spoke together at meetings and rallies, and I got to know him; his warmth, optimism, tea-drinking and pipe-smoking were undimmed.

Murray remembers the Daily Mail in the late 1980s crowing that the spectre of socialism had been lifted from Britain. ‘We didn’t have a convincing rebuttal,’ he says, ‘other than a sense that history would turn at some point.’ In these dark moments, it was only this faint hope that sustained the left: where neoliberals, convinced of the permanence of their triumph, talked of the end of history, the left clung to the idea that history had a habit of coming back. But, in the early 1990s, it didn’t look likely any time soon. A new consensus had been forged, one defined by the late cultural theorist Mark Fisher as ‘capitalist realism’, or ‘the widespread sense that not only is capitalism the only viable political and economic system, but also that it is now impossible even to imagine a coherent alternative to it’.6 Len McCluskey, a thick-set Scouser whose rectangular spectacles give him the air of an intellectual bouncer, is the most influential trade union leader of modern times.

The eternal sunshine of neoliberalism was exposed for what it was: a sham. As people realized this, they turned again to politics and history, and started to protest. By this point, the veneer had long since come off the shiny surfaces of the Blair government and similar centrist administrations around the world, with their implied mantra of ‘The End of History’. At the close of the twentieth century, the term ‘anti-capitalism’ had started to creep into mainstream news bulletins, along with coverage of mass worldwide protests from Prague to Seattle, Genoa to Gothenburg. The political establishment saw these demonstrations as a futile howl against ‘globalization’, the system that was now here to stay.


World Cities and Nation States by Greg Clark, Tim Moonen

active transport: walking or cycling, Asian financial crisis, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Boris Johnson, business climate, clean tech, congestion charging, corporate governance, Crossrail, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, driverless car, financial independence, financial intermediation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gentrification, global supply chain, global value chain, high net worth, high-speed rail, housing crisis, immigration reform, income inequality, informal economy, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, low skilled workers, managed futures, megacity, megaproject, new economy, New Urbanism, Norman Mailer, open economy, Pearl River Delta, rent control, Richard Florida, Shenzhen special economic zone , Silicon Valley, smart cities, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, stem cell, supply-chain management, tacit knowledge, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, trade route, transaction costs, transit-oriented development, upwardly mobile, urban planning, urban renewal, urban sprawl, War on Poverty, zero-sum game

Analysts and commentators searched for new conceptual tools to grasp this change. The emergence of a new way of thinking about cities coincided with a wave of optimism and prophecy about the future of global society, as the Berlin Wall came down, the Soviet Union collapsed and regional economic integration accelerated. Francis Fukuyama’s (1989) ‘The End of History’ thesis famously declared the triumph of Western liberal democracy and the inevitable supremacy of global capitalism; this had an echo in the ‘end of the nation state’ foreseen by management and economics analyst Kenichi Ohmae (1995). Ohmae viewed nation states as inefficient and bureaucratic obstacles to globalised economic growth.

Regionalism and Global Economic Integration: Europe, Asia and the Americas. London and New York: Routledge. Frankopan, P. (2015). The Silk Roads: A new history of the world. London: Bloomsbury. Friedmann, J. (1986). The world city hypothesis. Development and Change, 17(1): 69–83. Fukuyama, F. (1989). The End of History? In The National Interest (1992). The End of History and the Last Man. New York: The Free Press. Germain, R.D. (1997). The International Organization of Credit: States and Global Finance in the World‐Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Giersig, N. (2008). Multilevel urban governance and the European City: discussing metropolitan reforms in Stockholm and Helsinki.


pages: 481 words: 121,300

Why geography matters: three challenges facing America : climate change, the rise of China, and global terrorism by Harm J. De Blij

agricultural Revolution, airport security, Anton Chekhov, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, British Empire, colonial exploitation, complexity theory, computer age, crony capitalism, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Eratosthenes, European colonialism, F. W. de Klerk, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, global village, Great Leap Forward, high-speed rail, illegal immigration, Internet Archive, John Snow's cholera map, Khyber Pass, manufacturing employment, megacity, megaproject, Mercator projection, MITM: man-in-the-middle, Nelson Mandela, Oklahoma City bombing, out of africa, RAND corporation, risk tolerance, Ronald Reagan, social distancing, South China Sea, special economic zone, Thomas Malthus, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, UNCLOS, UNCLOS

And this is only one dimension of the ceaseless transformation of Earth that began 4.6 billion years ago. OCEANS PAST AND FUTURE The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 led to much introspection—not only political, but also philosophical and scientific—and gave rise to a spate of books signaling the onset of a new era. Their titles were often misleading, such as The End of History by Francis Fukuyama, but none more so than one by John Horgan (1996) called The End of Science, which argued that all the great questions of science had been answered and that what remained, essentially, was a filling of the gaps. When it comes to global environments, however, some great questions remain open.

See also specific regions and countries and geography, 10, 15 and Islam, 164 and NAFTA, 3 and population, 95-96 and terrorism, 175 Economist, 52, 95, 257 Ecuador, 120, 180 education graduate education of geographers, 6, 46 on Islam, 164 and population, 96 status of geography, X, 12, 13, 14-19 Eemian interglacial, 69, 72-73, 82, 83, 90 Egypt ancient civilization of, 128, 134,258-59 Islam in, 162, 185 terrorism, 156, 159, 161, 176 Ehriich, Paul, 93 empires, 77, 135, 138-44 The End of History (Fukuyama), 57 The End of Science (Horgan), 57 energy crises, 21,51, 132, 277-78. See also natural gas; oil England, 202. See also United Kingdom English Channel, 74 Enlai, Zhou, 125 Environmental Conservation, 15 environmental determinism, 11, 87-90 environmental issues, 6, 15, 100-101, 102, 115.


pages: 394 words: 118,929

Dreaming in Code: Two Dozen Programmers, Three Years, 4,732 Bugs, and One Quest for Transcendent Software by Scott Rosenberg

A Pattern Language, AOL-Time Warner, Benevolent Dictator For Life (BDFL), Berlin Wall, Bill Atkinson, c2.com, call centre, collaborative editing, Computer Lib, conceptual framework, continuous integration, Do you want to sell sugared water for the rest of your life?, Donald Knuth, Douglas Engelbart, Douglas Engelbart, Douglas Hofstadter, Dynabook, en.wikipedia.org, Firefox, Ford Model T, Ford paid five dollars a day, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Free Software Foundation, functional programming, General Magic , George Santayana, Grace Hopper, Guido van Rossum, Gödel, Escher, Bach, Howard Rheingold, HyperCard, index card, intentional community, Internet Archive, inventory management, Ivan Sutherland, Jaron Lanier, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, John von Neumann, knowledge worker, L Peter Deutsch, Larry Wall, life extension, Loma Prieta earthquake, machine readable, Menlo Park, Merlin Mann, Mitch Kapor, Neal Stephenson, new economy, Nicholas Carr, no silver bullet, Norbert Wiener, pattern recognition, Paul Graham, Potemkin village, RAND corporation, Ray Kurzweil, Richard Stallman, Ronald Reagan, Ruby on Rails, scientific management, semantic web, side project, Silicon Valley, Singularitarianism, slashdot, software studies, source of truth, South of Market, San Francisco, speech recognition, stealth mode startup, stem cell, Stephen Hawking, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, Strategic Defense Initiative, Ted Nelson, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, Therac-25, thinkpad, Turing test, VA Linux, Vannevar Bush, Vernor Vinge, Wayback Machine, web application, Whole Earth Catalog, Y2K

This is the scenario presented by a business thinker named Nicholas Carr in a notorious May 2003 article in the Harvard Business Review titled “IT Doesn’t Matter.” Carr infuriated legions of Silicon Valley visionaries and technology executives by suggesting that their products—the entire corpus of information technology, or IT—had become irrelevant. Like Francis Fukuyama, the Hegelian philosopher who famously declared “the end of history” when the Berlin wall fell and the Soviet Union imploded, Carr argued, essentially, that software history is over, done. We know what software is, what it does, and how to deploy it in the business world, so there is nothing left but to dot the i’s and bring on the heavyweight methodologies to perfect it.

To believe that we already know all the possible uses for software is to assume that the programs we already possess satisfy all our needs and that people are going to stop seeking something better. Irate critics of software flaws like The Software Conspiracy’s Mark Minasi and skeptical analysts of the software business like Nicholas Carr share these end-of-history blinders. If you believe that we already know everything we want from software, then it’s natural to believe that with enough hard work and planning, we can perfect it—and that’s where we should place our energies. Don’t even think about new features and novel ideas; focus everyone’s energies on whittling down every product’s bug list until we can say, for the first time in history, that most software is in great shape.


pages: 510 words: 120,048

Who Owns the Future? by Jaron Lanier

3D printing, 4chan, Abraham Maslow, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Airbnb, augmented reality, automated trading system, barriers to entry, bitcoin, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, book scanning, book value, Burning Man, call centre, carbon credits, carbon footprint, cloud computing, commoditize, company town, computer age, Computer Lib, crowdsourcing, data science, David Brooks, David Graeber, delayed gratification, digital capitalism, digital Maoism, digital rights, Douglas Engelbart, en.wikipedia.org, Everything should be made as simple as possible, facts on the ground, Filter Bubble, financial deregulation, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Garrett Hardin, George Akerlof, global supply chain, global village, Haight Ashbury, hive mind, if you build it, they will come, income inequality, informal economy, information asymmetry, invisible hand, Ivan Sutherland, Jaron Lanier, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, Kevin Kelly, Khan Academy, Kickstarter, Kodak vs Instagram, life extension, Long Term Capital Management, machine translation, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, meta-analysis, Metcalfe’s law, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, Neal Stephenson, Network effects, new economy, Norbert Wiener, obamacare, off-the-grid, packet switching, Panopticon Jeremy Bentham, Peter Thiel, place-making, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, post-oil, pre–internet, Project Xanadu, race to the bottom, Ray Kurzweil, rent-seeking, reversible computing, Richard Feynman, Ronald Reagan, scientific worldview, self-driving car, side project, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, smart meter, stem cell, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Stewart Brand, synthetic biology, tech billionaire, technological determinism, Ted Nelson, The Market for Lemons, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, Tragedy of the Commons, trickle-down economics, Turing test, Vannevar Bush, WikiLeaks, zero-sum game

Lana Wachowski, cowriter and director of the Matrix movies, described a later project, Cloud Atlas, as residing between “the future idea that everything is fragmented and the past idea that there is a beginning, middle, and end.”1 As the turn of the millennium approached, such declarations were commonplace (as in the monologue of the “world’s oldest Bolshevik” in Tony Kushner’s play Perestroika, or aspects of Francis Fukuyama’s book The End of History—both from 1992), but it’s odd that we can still hear them today even from the most tech-oriented writers and thinkers. You won’t find any such point of view within tech circles, however. There, one is immersed in a clear-enough dominant narrative. Everything is becoming more and more software-mediated, physicality is becoming more mutable by technology, and reality is being optimized.

., 18, 137 differential pricing, 63–64 digital cameras, 2 digital networks, 2–3, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19–21, 31, 35, 49, 50–51, 53, 54–55, 56, 57, 59, 60–61, 66–67, 69–71, 74, 75, 77–80, 92, 96, 99, 107–8, 118–19, 120, 122, 129–30, 133n, 136–37, 143–48, 192, 199, 209, 221–30, 234, 235, 245–51, 259, 277, 278, 286–87, 308–9, 316, 337, 345, 349, 350, 355, 366–67 design of, 40–45 educational, 92–97 effects, 99, 153, 169–74, 179, 181–82, 183, 186, 207, 305, 362–63, 366 elite, 15, 31, 54–55, 60, 122, 201 graph-shaped, 214, 242–43 medical, 98–99 nodes of, 156, 227, 230, 241–43, 350 power of, 147–49, 167 punishing vs. rewarding, 169–74, 182, 183 tree-shaped, 241–42, 243, 246 see also Internet digital rights movement, 225–26 digital technology, 2–3, 7–8, 15–16, 18, 31, 40, 43, 50–51, 132, 208 dignity, 51–52, 73–74, 92, 209, 239, 253–64, 280, 319, 365–66 direct current (DC), 327 disease, 110 disenfranchisement, 15–16 dossiers, personal, 109, 318 dot-com bubble, 186, 301 double-blind tests, 112 Drexler, Eric, 162 DSM, 124n dualism, 194–95 Duncan, Isadora, 214 Dyson, George, 192 dystopias, 130, 137–38 earthquakes, 266 Eastern Religion, 211–17 eBay, 173, 176, 177n, 180, 241, 343 eBooks, 113, 246–47, 352–60 eBureau, 109 economic avatars, 283–85, 302, 337–38 economics, 1–3, 15, 22, 37, 38, 40–41, 42, 67, 122, 143, 148–52, 153, 155–56, 204, 208, 209, 236, 259, 274, 288, 298–99, 311, 362n, 363 economies: austerity in, 96, 115, 125, 151, 152, 204, 208 barter system for, 20, 57 collusion in, 65–66, 72, 169–74, 255, 350–51 competition in, 42, 60, 81, 143–44, 147, 153, 180, 181, 187–88, 246–48, 326 consumer, 16–17, 43, 54, 56n, 62, 63–65, 72–74, 85–86, 98, 114, 117, 154, 162, 173–74, 177, 179–80, 182, 192, 193, 215, 216, 223, 227, 241, 246, 247, 248–64, 271–72, 273, 286–88, 293, 323, 347–48, 349, 355–56, 357, 358–60 depressions in, 69–70, 75, 135, 151–52, 288, 299 dignity in, 51–52, 73–74, 92, 209, 239, 253–64, 280, 319, 365–66 distributions in, 37–45 of education, 92–97 efficiency in, 39, 42–43, 53, 61, 66–67, 71–74, 88, 90, 97, 118, 123, 155, 176n, 187–88, 191, 236, 246, 310, 349 entrepreneurial, 14, 57, 79, 82, 100–106, 116, 117–20, 122, 128, 148–49, 166, 167, 183, 200, 234, 241–43, 248, 274, 326, 359 equilibrium in, 148–51 financial sector in, 7n, 29–31, 35, 38, 45, 49, 50, 52, 54, 56–67, 69–70, 74–80, 82, 115, 116–20, 148n, 153–54, 155, 179–85, 200, 208, 218, 254, 257, 258, 277–78, 298, 299–300, 301, 336–37, 344–45, 348, 350 freedom and, 32–33, 90–92, 277–78, 336 global, 33n, 153–56, 173, 201, 214–15, 280 government oversight of, 44, 45–46, 49, 79–80, 96, 151–52, 158, 199, 205–6, 234–35, 240, 246, 248–51, 299–300, 307, 317, 341, 345–46, 350–51 growth in, 32, 43–45, 53–54, 119, 149–51, 236, 256–57, 270–71, 274–75, 291–94, 350 of health care, 98–99, 100, 153–54 historical analysis of, 29–31, 37–38, 69–70 humanistic, 194, 209, 233–351 361–367 of human labor, 85, 86, 87, 88, 99–100, 257–58, 292 identity in, 82, 283–90, 305, 306, 307, 315–16 inclusiveness of, 291–94 information, 1–3, 8–9, 15–17, 18, 19–20, 21, 35, 60–61, 92–97, 118, 185, 188, 201, 207, 209, 241–43, 245–46, 246–48, 256–58, 263, 283–87, 291–303, 331, 361–67 leadership in, 341–51 legal issues for, 49, 74–78 levees in, 43–45, 46, 47, 48, 49–50, 52, 92, 94, 96, 98, 108, 171, 176n, 224–25, 239–43, 253–54, 263, 345 local advantages in, 64, 94–95, 143–44, 153–56, 173, 203, 280 market, 16–17, 20, 23–24, 33–34, 38, 39, 43–46, 47, 50–52, 66–67, 75, 108, 118–19, 126, 136, 143, 144–48, 151–52, 155, 156, 167, 202, 207, 221–22, 240, 246–48, 254–57, 261, 262–63, 266, 277–78, 288, 292–93, 297–300, 318, 324, 326, 329, 344, 354, 355–56; see also capitalism mathematical analysis of, 40–41 models of, 40–41, 148–52, 153, 155–56 monopolies in, 60, 65–66, 169–74, 181–82, 187–88, 190, 202, 326, 350 morality and, 29–34, 35, 42, 50–52, 54, 71–74, 252–64 Nelsonian, 335, 349–50 neutrality in, 286–87 optimization of, 144–47, 148, 153, 154–55, 167, 202, 203 outcomes in, 40–41, 144–45 political impact of, 21, 47–48, 96, 149–51, 155, 167, 295–96 pricing strategies in, 1–2, 43, 60–66, 72–74, 145, 147–48, 158, 169–74, 226, 261, 272–75, 289, 317–24, 331, 337–38 productivity of, 7, 56–57, 134–35 profit margins in, 59n, 71–72, 76–78, 94–95, 116, 177n, 178, 179, 207, 258, 274–75, 321–22 public perception of, 66n, 79–80, 149–50 recessions in, 31, 54, 60, 76–77, 79, 151–52, 167, 204, 311, 336–37 regulation of, 37–38, 44, 45–46, 49–50, 54, 56, 69–70, 77–78, 266n, 274, 299–300, 311, 321–22, 350–51 risk in, 54, 55, 57, 59–63, 71–72, 85, 117, 118–19, 120, 156, 170–71, 179, 183–84, 188, 242, 277–81, 284, 337, 350 scams in, 119–21, 186, 275n, 287–88, 299–300 self-destructive, 60–61 social aspect of, 37–38, 40, 148–52, 153, 154–56 stimulus methods for, 151–52 sustainable, 235–37, 285–87 transformation of, 280–94, 341–51 trust as factor in, 32–34, 35, 42, 51–52 value in, 21, 33–35, 52, 61, 64–67, 73n, 108, 283–90, 299–300, 321–22, 364 variables in, 149–50 vendors in, 71–74 Edison, Thomas, 263, 327 editors, 92 education, 92–97, 98, 120, 150, 201 efficiency, 39, 42–43, 53, 61, 66–67, 71–74, 88, 90, 97, 118, 123, 155, 176n, 187–88, 191, 236, 246, 310, 349 Egypt, 95 eHarmony, 167–68 Einstein, Albert, 208n, 364 elderly, 97–100, 133, 269, 296n, 346 elections, 202–4, 249, 251 electricity, 131, 327 Electronic Frontier Foundation, 184 “elevator pitch,” 233, 342, 361 Eloi, 137 employment, 2, 7–8, 11, 22, 56–57, 60, 71–74, 79, 85–106, 117, 123, 135, 149, 151–52, 178, 201, 234, 257–58, 321–22, 331, 343 encryption, 14–15, 175, 239–40, 305–8, 345 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 338 End of History, The (Fukuyama), 165 endoscopes, 11 end-use license agreements (EULAs), 79–82, 314 energy landscapes, 145–48, 152, 209, 336, 350 energy sector, 43, 55–56, 90, 144, 258, 301–3 Engelbart, Doug, 215 engineering, 113–14, 120, 123–24, 157, 180, 192, 193, 194, 217, 218, 248, 272, 286n, 326, 342, 362–63 Enlightenment, 35, 255 enneagrams, 124n, 215 Enron Corp., 49, 74–75 entertainment industry, 7, 66, 109, 120, 135, 136, 185–86, 258, 260 see also mass media entrepreneurship, 14, 57, 79, 82, 100–106, 116, 117–20, 122, 128, 148–49, 166, 167, 183, 200, 234, 241–43, 248, 274, 326, 359 entropy, 55–56, 143, 183–84 environmental issues, 32 equilibrium, 148–51 Erlich, Paul, 132 est, 214 Ethernet, 229 Etsy, 343 Europe, 45, 54, 77, 199 evolution, 131, 137–38, 144, 146–47 exclusion principle, 181, 202 Expedia, 65 experiments, scientific, 112 experts, 88, 94–95, 124, 133–34, 178, 325–31, 341, 342 externalization, 59n Facebook, 2, 8, 14, 20, 56–57, 93, 109, 154, 169, 171, 174, 180, 181, 188, 190–91, 200n, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 214, 215, 217, 227, 242–43, 246, 248, 249, 251, 270, 280, 286, 306, 309, 310, 313, 314, 317, 318, 322, 326, 329, 341, 343, 344, 346, 347–48, 366 facial recognition, 305n, 309–10 factories, 43, 85–86, 88, 135 famine, 17, 132 Fannie Mae, 69 fascism, 159–60 fashion, 89, 260 feedback, 112, 162, 169, 203, 298, 301–3, 363–64, 365 fees, service, 81, 82 feudalism, 79 Feynman, Richard, 94 file sharing, 50–52, 61, 74, 78, 88, 100, 223–30, 239–40, 253–64, 277, 317–24, 335, 349 “filter bubbles,” 225, 357 filters, 119–20, 200, 225, 356–57 financial crisis (2008), 76–77, 115, 148n financial services, 7n, 29–31, 35, 38, 45, 49, 50, 52, 54, 56–67, 69–70, 74–80, 82, 115, 116–20, 148n, 153–54, 155, 179–85, 200, 208, 218, 254, 257, 258, 277–78, 298, 299–300, 301, 336–37, 344–45, 348, 350 firewalls, 305 first-class economic citizens, 246, 247, 248–51, 273, 286–87, 323, 349, 355–56 Flightfox, 64 fluctuations, 76–78 flu outbreaks, 110, 120 fMRI, 111–12 food supplies, 17, 123, 131 “Fool on the Hill, The,” 213 Ford, Henry, 43 Ford, Martin, 56n Forster, E.


pages: 316 words: 117,228

The Code of Capital: How the Law Creates Wealth and Inequality by Katharina Pistor

Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, asset-backed security, barriers to entry, Bear Stearns, Bernie Madoff, Big Tech, bilateral investment treaty, bitcoin, blockchain, Bretton Woods, business cycle, business process, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Carmen Reinhart, central bank independence, collateralized debt obligation, colonial rule, conceptual framework, Corn Laws, corporate governance, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, credit default swaps / collateralized debt obligations, cryptocurrency, digital rights, Donald Trump, double helix, driverless car, Edward Glaeser, Ethereum, ethereum blockchain, facts on the ground, financial innovation, financial intermediation, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, global reserve currency, Gregor Mendel, Hernando de Soto, income inequality, initial coin offering, intangible asset, investor state dispute settlement, invisible hand, joint-stock company, joint-stock limited liability company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, land reform, land tenure, London Interbank Offered Rate, Long Term Capital Management, means of production, money market fund, moral hazard, offshore financial centre, phenotype, Ponzi scheme, power law, price mechanism, price stability, profit maximization, railway mania, regulatory arbitrage, reserve currency, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, Satoshi Nakamoto, secular stagnation, self-driving car, seminal paper, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, smart contracts, software patent, sovereign wealth fund, The Nature of the Firm, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, time value of money, too big to fail, trade route, Tragedy of the Commons, transaction costs, Wolfgang Streeck

The data measure the sum of all national income at the global level, where national income includes public and private income as well as income from existing resources, labor, and the expected value of future gains. 2. Note that in terms of global income, they still fall squarely in the center of the income curve, accounting for the range from 50th to 90th percentiles. 3. Fukuyama’s provocative thesis about the “end of history” has become emblematic for this period. See Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 4. See, for example, Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View (London, New York: Verso, 1999). 5. Joseph E. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents (New York, London: Norton, 2002); Dani Rodrik, The Globalization Paradox (New York: Norton, 2011). 6.


pages: 449 words: 127,440

Moscow, December 25th, 1991 by Conor O'Clery

Anton Chekhov, Berlin Wall, central bank independence, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, haute couture, It's morning again in America, land reform, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Ronald Reagan, Sinatra Doctrine, The Chicago School

It signals the final defeat of the twentieth century’s two totalitarian systems, Nazi fascism and Soviet communism, which embroiled the world in the greatest war in history. It is the day that allows American conservatives to celebrate—prematurely—the prophecy of the philosopher Francis Fukuyama that the collapse of the USSR will mark the “end of history,” with the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government. Mikhail Gorbachev created the conditions for the end of totalitarianism, and Boris Yeltsin delivered the death blow. But neither is honored in Russia in modern times as a national hero, nor is the date of the transfer of power formally commemorated in Moscow.


pages: 521 words: 118,183

The Wires of War: Technology and the Global Struggle for Power by Jacob Helberg

"World Economic Forum" Davos, 2021 United States Capitol attack, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, active measures, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, air gap, Airbnb, algorithmic management, augmented reality, autonomous vehicles, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, bike sharing, Black Lives Matter, blockchain, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, cable laying ship, call centre, Cambridge Analytica, Cass Sunstein, cloud computing, coronavirus, COVID-19, creative destruction, crisis actor, data is the new oil, data science, decentralized internet, deep learning, deepfake, deglobalization, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, deplatforming, digital nomad, disinformation, don't be evil, Donald Trump, dual-use technology, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, end-to-end encryption, fail fast, fake news, Filter Bubble, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, geopolitical risk, glass ceiling, global pandemic, global supply chain, Google bus, Google Chrome, GPT-3, green new deal, information security, Internet of things, Jeff Bezos, Jeffrey Epstein, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, knowledge economy, Larry Ellison, lockdown, Loma Prieta earthquake, low earth orbit, low skilled workers, Lyft, manufacturing employment, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, Mary Meeker, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Mohammed Bouazizi, move fast and break things, Nate Silver, natural language processing, Network effects, new economy, one-China policy, open economy, OpenAI, Parler "social media", Peter Thiel, QAnon, QR code, race to the bottom, Ralph Nader, RAND corporation, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, Ronald Reagan, Russian election interference, Salesforce, Sam Altman, satellite internet, self-driving car, Sheryl Sandberg, side project, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, smart grid, SoftBank, Solyndra, South China Sea, SpaceX Starlink, Steve Jobs, Steven Levy, Stuxnet, supply-chain attack, Susan Wojcicki, tech worker, techlash, technoutopianism, TikTok, Tim Cook: Apple, trade route, TSMC, Twitter Arab Spring, uber lyft, undersea cable, Unsafe at Any Speed, Valery Gerasimov, vertical integration, Wargames Reagan, Westphalian system, white picket fence, WikiLeaks, Y Combinator, zero-sum game

From the maternity ward, I added my voice to the festive chorus. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, former Warsaw Pact countries in Eastern Europe began holding free elections. From Europe to Latin America, across Asia and Africa, free markets and liberal democracy were on the march. A young political scientist, Francis Fukuyama, famously concluded that we had reached “the End of History.” Not everyone was savoring the moment, however. On the day the Berlin Wall came down, Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin was a young KGB officer stationed in Dresden, East Germany. In his own telling, he brandished a pistol to fend off an angry crowd intent on sacking the agency’s Dresden headquarters.


pages: 436 words: 76

Culture and Prosperity: The Truth About Markets - Why Some Nations Are Rich but Most Remain Poor by John Kay

Alan Greenspan, Albert Einstein, Asian financial crisis, Barry Marshall: ulcers, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bletchley Park, business cycle, California gold rush, Charles Babbage, complexity theory, computer age, constrained optimization, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, correlation does not imply causation, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, Donald Trump, double entry bookkeeping, double helix, Dr. Strangelove, Dutch auction, Edward Lloyd's coffeehouse, electricity market, equity premium, equity risk premium, Ernest Rutherford, European colonialism, experimental economics, Exxon Valdez, failed state, Fairchild Semiconductor, financial innovation, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Akerlof, George Gilder, Goodhart's law, Great Leap Forward, greed is good, Gunnar Myrdal, haute couture, Helicobacter pylori, illegal immigration, income inequality, industrial cluster, information asymmetry, intangible asset, invention of the telephone, invention of the wheel, invisible hand, John Meriwether, John Nash: game theory, John von Neumann, junk bonds, Kenneth Arrow, Kevin Kelly, knowledge economy, Larry Ellison, light touch regulation, Long Term Capital Management, loss aversion, Mahatma Gandhi, market bubble, market clearing, market fundamentalism, means of production, Menlo Park, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, moral hazard, Myron Scholes, Naomi Klein, Nash equilibrium, new economy, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, Pareto efficiency, Paul Samuelson, pets.com, Phillips curve, popular electronics, price discrimination, price mechanism, prisoner's dilemma, profit maximization, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, QWERTY keyboard, Ralph Nader, RAND corporation, random walk, rent-seeking, Right to Buy, risk tolerance, road to serfdom, Robert Solow, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, second-price auction, shareholder value, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, South Sea Bubble, Steve Jobs, Stuart Kauffman, telemarketer, The Chicago School, The Market for Lemons, The Nature of the Firm, the new new thing, The Predators' Ball, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thorstein Veblen, total factor productivity, transaction costs, tulip mania, urban decay, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, women in the workforce, work culture , yield curve, yield management

A central lesson of the last chapter of the Soviet Union was that economic institutions cannot be viewed in isolation from the social and political environment in which they function. This lesson was not taken to heart, either by the American victors or by the reformers who subsequently came to power in Russia. Francis Fukuyama famously captured the triumphalism of America's victory by proclaiming "the end of history." 1 A lightly regulated market economy in a liberal democracy was appropriate, not just for the United States at the end of the twentieth century, but for all countries at all times. The market economy was victorious not only in the war between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Antiglobalization protesters gained confidence from their Seattle success, and every subsequent international economic meeting was besieged by demonstrators. Symbols of international capitalism-branches ofMcDonald's-were stoned and Culture and Prosperity { 11} even burned. Environmentalists joined these protesters in denouncing the values of modern business. So, as the new millennium dawned, the end of history seemed more, not less, distant. International relations took on a new complexity, in which a simple contrast of good and evil became a complex mixture of economics, ideology, religion, and politics. Russian living standards have fallen below the dismal levels achieved under communism, while Russian criminal oligarchs have become billionaires.

China is still Culture and Prosperity {17} extremely poor, but the extraordinary achievements of Chinese people outside China, and increasingly within China, may change this balance of the world economy in the twenty-first century. One of the key issues of economic history has always been why rapid economic growth in the eighteenth century began in northwest Europe rather than southeast China. No End of History ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• This diversity of experience demonstrates that there is no single model of a successful modern economy. In an extraordinary reversal, the claims of historical inevitability and economic determinism once made by Marxists are today adopted by devotees of the American business model.


pages: 470 words: 130,269

The Marginal Revolutionaries: How Austrian Economists Fought the War of Ideas by Janek Wasserman

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Abraham Wald, Albert Einstein, American Legislative Exchange Council, anti-communist, battle of ideas, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, business cycle, collective bargaining, Corn Laws, correlation does not imply causation, creative destruction, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, different worldview, Donald Trump, experimental economics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, floating exchange rates, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gunnar Myrdal, housing crisis, Internet Archive, invisible hand, John von Neumann, Joseph Schumpeter, laissez-faire capitalism, liberal capitalism, low interest rates, market fundamentalism, mass immigration, means of production, Menlo Park, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, New Journalism, New Urbanism, old-boy network, Paul Samuelson, Philip Mirowski, price mechanism, price stability, public intellectual, RAND corporation, random walk, rent control, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, rolodex, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, The Chicago School, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Thomas Malthus, trade liberalization, union organizing, urban planning, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, zero-sum game, éminence grise

More recently, the fascination of a small faction of Alt-Right extremists, pledging fealty to Mises, Rothbard, and Austrian ideas, has forced the “producers” of contemporary Austrian ideas to confront the unfortunate fact that the “consumers” of Austrianism are not always the well-reasoned, liberal individuals they imagined. Their ideas have had unintended consequences, which demand a greater reckoning from within the tradition. Austrian Economics at the “End of History” The “end of history” announced by the political scientist Francis Fukuyama in 1989 seemed to be an Austrian moment. Fukuyama celebrated “the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government” and “the total exhaustion of viable systemic alternatives to Western liberalism.” For a century, the Austrians had railed against socialists and conservatives in the name of liberalism.

Scholars of free-market conservatism, neoliberalism, and libertarianism have placed the Austrians at the center of their accounts. They see Vienna as the seedbed of capitalist internationalism and globalism. Hayek’s MPS has become the locus classicus of neoliberalism. Popular commentators have positively linked the Austrians to the fall of Communism, the triumph of the West, and “the end of history,” on the one hand, and negatively to Pinochet’s Chile, the Koch empire, the Tea Party, and the Alt-Right, on the other. How these diverse impacts developed—and what precise role the Austrians played in them—requires further elaboration.11 These problems illustrate why there is still such confusion surrounding the Austrian School tradition.

The scions of the Viennese Bildungsbürgertum would have applauded this judgment. They had been marginalized and expelled, yet they continued to fight for the values of the West and the Enlightenment. Hayek and Mises had been right all along, and the West owed them a debt of gratitude. In a final irony, though, the post-1989 narrative of “the end of history,” which Judt rightly criticized, has further muddied our understanding of the Austrian School. The school has occupied a curious place in the current popular imagination and in the economic and political discourse of the twenty-first century. Its current iterations would probably shock the liberal cosmopolitans of the original school.


pages: 464 words: 139,088

The End of Alchemy: Money, Banking and the Future of the Global Economy by Mervyn King

Alan Greenspan, Andrei Shleifer, Asian financial crisis, asset-backed security, balance sheet recession, bank run, banking crisis, banks create money, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, bitcoin, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, Black Swan, Boeing 747, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, capital controls, Carmen Reinhart, Cass Sunstein, central bank independence, centre right, classic study, collapse of Lehman Brothers, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, crowdsourcing, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, distributed generation, Doha Development Round, Edmond Halley, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, fiat currency, financial engineering, financial innovation, financial intermediation, floating exchange rates, foreign exchange controls, forward guidance, Fractional reserve banking, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, German hyperinflation, Glass-Steagall Act, Great Leap Forward, Hyman Minsky, inflation targeting, invisible hand, Japanese asset price bubble, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Meriwether, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Arrow, Kenneth Rogoff, labour market flexibility, large denomination, lateral thinking, liquidity trap, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, manufacturing employment, market clearing, Martin Wolf, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Money creation, money market fund, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, moral hazard, Myron Scholes, Nick Leeson, no-fly zone, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, open economy, paradox of thrift, Paul Samuelson, Ponzi scheme, price mechanism, price stability, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, rent-seeking, reserve currency, Richard Thaler, rising living standards, Robert Shiller, Robert Solow, Satoshi Nakamoto, savings glut, secular stagnation, seigniorage, stem cell, Steve Jobs, The Great Moderation, the payments system, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, transaction costs, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, yield curve, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

The latter states that ‘The Global Financial Crisis of 2008 was fundamentally a credit crisis on a massive, international scale.’ 15 Notable exceptions are Dumas (2010) and Wolf (2014). 16 In 1989 Francis Fukuyama published a famous essay ‘The End of History?’ in the international affairs journal The National Interest. He later wrote, ‘What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.’

To understand why the crisis was so big, and came as such a surprise, we should start at the key turning point – the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. At the time it was thought to represent the end of communism, indeed the end of the appeal of socialism and central planning. For some it was the end of history.16 For most, it represented a victory for free market economics. Contrary to the prediction of Marx, capitalism had displaced communism. Yet who would have believed that the fall of the Wall was not just the end of communism but the beginning of the biggest crisis in capitalism since the Great Depression?

.), Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 3–21. —— (1960), A Program for Monetary Stability, Fordham University Press, New York. Friedman, Milton and Anna Schwartz (1963), A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Fukuyama, Francis (1992), The End of History and the Last Man, Free Press, New York. Geithner, Timothy (2014), Stress Tests: Reflections on Financial Crises, Crown Publishers, New York. Gennaioli, Nicola, Andrei Shleifer and Robert Vishny (2015), ‘Neglected Risks: The Psychology of Financial Crises’, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 20875, mimeo, Cambridge, Massachusetts.


pages: 518 words: 143,914

God Is Back: How the Global Revival of Faith Is Changing the World by John Micklethwait, Adrian Wooldridge

affirmative action, anti-communist, Ayatollah Khomeini, barriers to entry, battle of ideas, Bonfire of the Vanities, Boris Johnson, correlation does not imply causation, credit crunch, David Brooks, Dr. Strangelove, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, ghettoisation, global supply chain, God and Mammon, Great Leap Forward, hiring and firing, industrial cluster, intangible asset, invisible hand, Iridium satellite, Jane Jacobs, joint-stock company, knowledge economy, liberation theology, low skilled workers, mass immigration, McMansion, megacity, Mikhail Gorbachev, Nelson Mandela, new economy, oil shock, Peace of Westphalia, public intellectual, Robert Bork, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, stem cell, supply-chain management, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, upwardly mobile, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus

on its cover, and in the same year Thomas Altizer, a theologian, published to much acclaim The Gospel of Christian Atheism.19 In 1968 Gallup found that sixty-seven percent of Americans believed that religion was losing its impact on society. A year later, an American reached the moon, metaphorically conquering the heavens. By the end of the twentieth century the intelligentsia had little doubt that modern man had outgrown God. Most trend-setting books in the 1990s saw the world through secular lenses.20 Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man predicted the triumph of secularization as well as liberalism. The word “religion” does not appear in the index of Diplomacy, Henry Kissinger’s nine-hundred-page masterpiece on statesmanship, published in 1994. In 1980-99 only half a dozen of the articles in America’s four main international-relations journals dealt with religion .21 The Economist was so confident of the Almighty’s demise that we published His obituary in our millennium issue.

The evidence of this can be seen everywhere in the developing world: in churches the size of football stadiums across Latin America, in twelve-thousand-acre “redemption camps” in Nigeria, in storefront churches in the slums of Rio and Guatemala City, in brick and mud tabernacles with metal roofs and dirt floors in rural South Africa. Across the world fiery preachers are delivering the same message: live your life according to God’s law, read the Bible as the literal word of Truth, be on the lookout for miracles and wonders, and, above all, prepare yourself for the end of history and the beginning of the millennium. The success of Pentecostalism is a strange mixture of unflinching belief and pragmatism, raw emotion and self-improvement, improvisation and organization: it is as if somebody had distilled American-style religion down to its basic elements and then set about marketing it globally.


pages: 455 words: 131,569

Predator: The Secret Origins of the Drone Revolution by Richard Whittle

Berlin Wall, Charles Lindbergh, cuban missile crisis, Dr. Strangelove, drone strike, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentleman farmer, Google Earth, indoor plumbing, Khyber Pass, Kickstarter, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Neil Armstrong, no-fly zone, operational security, precision agriculture, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, Strategic Defense Initiative, Teledyne, Yom Kippur War

Bosnia-Herzegovina was a multiethnic republic of the former Yugoslavia, whose post–Cold War breakup in 1992 unleashed decades of repressed hostility among Croats, Muslims, Serbs, and smaller ethnic groups. The result was a civil war that marked the worst conflict in Europe since 1945 and led to demands for intervention to stop it. Western triumphalism was in the air—political scientist Francis Fukuyama had just published his book The End of History, predicting the rise of global liberal democracy—and most of America’s leaders felt inclined or even obliged to use U.S. military power for world peace, especially now that the Soviet Union’s history really had ended and Moscow wasn’t going to interfere. Seven months before Clinton’s election, his predecessor, President George H.

See also Hellfire Predator; Predator; WILD Predator; and other specific models Blue expands into early, and problems early pilotless planes and early reconnaissance flight endurance of Karem designs new nano-drones revolution in Smithsonian exhibit target Dr. Strangelove (film) drug war Dusseault, Christopher East Germany Edwards Air Force Base Eglin Air Force Base Egypt Ehrhard, Thomas P. Eielson Air Force Base 11th Reconnaissance Squadron (Black Owls) El Mirage airfield Empire State Building End of History, The (Fukuyama) “Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Program” (Deutch-Rutherford memo) Enduring Freedom, Operation European Command European Union Executive Orders Exposition Internationale, L’ F-4D Phantom F-5 Tiger F6F Hellcat F-14 Tomcat F-15 Eagle F-15E Strike Eagle F-16 F-16C Fighting Falcons F-18 F-22 Raptor F-100F Super Sabre F-117 stealth fighter F/A-18 fighter-bombers Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 15th Reconnaissance Squadron 53rd Test and Evaluation Group 56th Rescue Squadron Firebees Fireflys 1st Armored Division 555th Tactical Fighter Squadron Flynn, Cathal Fogleman, Ronald Ford, Gerald Fort Belvoir Fort Huachuca Fort Irwin Forty-Four ball (AN/AAS-44 V) forward air controller (FAC) Foscue, Greg Fossum, Robert Franks, Tommy free-flight World Championships Front Burner (Lippold) Frontier Systems Fry, Scott Fukuyama, Francis Fulcher, Tim Garmabak Ghar camp Gates Learjet GBU-12s General Atomics (formerly GA Technologies) 11th RS and Blues buy Forty-Four ball and Gnat 750 and Karem quits Leading Systems buyout and Predator forerunner and Predator name reused by General Dynamics Germany Gersten, Peter Ghengis (pilot) Gibaldi, Rich Gibbons, James A.


pages: 504 words: 129,087

The Ones We've Been Waiting For: How a New Generation of Leaders Will Transform America by Charlotte Alter

"Hurricane Katrina" Superdome, "World Economic Forum" Davos, 4chan, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, Big Tech, Black Lives Matter, carbon footprint, carbon tax, clean water, collective bargaining, Columbine, corporate personhood, correlation does not imply causation, Credit Default Swap, crowdsourcing, data science, David Brooks, deepfake, deplatforming, disinformation, Donald Trump, double helix, East Village, ending welfare as we know it, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Ferguson, Missouri, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, gentrification, gig economy, glass ceiling, Glass-Steagall Act, Google Hangouts, green new deal, Greta Thunberg, housing crisis, illegal immigration, immigration reform, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), job-hopping, Kevin Kelly, knowledge economy, Lyft, mandatory minimum, Marc Andreessen, Mark Zuckerberg, mass incarceration, McMansion, medical bankruptcy, microaggression, move fast and break things, Nate Silver, obamacare, Occupy movement, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, passive income, pre–internet, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, sexual politics, Sheryl Sandberg, side hustle, Silicon Valley, single-payer health, Snapchat, Social Justice Warrior, Steve Bannon, TaskRabbit, tech bro, too big to fail, Uber and Lyft, uber lyft, universal basic income, unpaid internship, We are the 99%, white picket fence, working poor, Works Progress Administration

Even the millions of boomers who opposed the excesses of McCarthyism and the Vietnam War grew up to think, with considerable justification, that capitalist economies created more wealth for their countries than socialist ones. When many socialist countries in the developing world shifted to more market-based systems in the 1990s, many boomers saw it as vindication: boomer historian Francis Fukuyama called this shift “the end of history” and characterized it as a decisive victory for free-market capitalism and liberal democracy. Even those over fifty who didn’t conflate socialism with communism were leery of what a more socialist America might do to their income. But Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez didn’t have memories of the Berlin Wall falling the year she was born, and she was a child when Eastern European, African, and Asian countries converted from socialism to capitalism to improve their standards of living.


pages: 1,123 words: 328,357

Post Wall: Rebuilding the World After 1989 by Kristina Spohr

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Alan Greenspan, American Legislative Exchange Council, Andrei Shleifer, anti-communist, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Bonfire of the Vanities, bread and circuses, Bretton Woods, central bank independence, colonial exploitation, Deng Xiaoping, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, facts on the ground, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, G4S, Japanese asset price bubble, Kickstarter, mass immigration, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, open economy, operational security, Prenzlauer Berg, price stability, public intellectual, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, software patent, South China Sea, special economic zone, Thomas L Friedman, Transnistria, uranium enrichment, zero-coupon bond

Hahn Russia’s Revolution from Above, 1985–2000: Reform, Transition and Revolution in the Fall of the Soviet Communist Regime Taylor & Francis 2002; Jacques Lévesque The Enigma of 1989: The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe Univ. of California Press 1997 Back to text 3. Francis Fukuyama ‘The End of History?’ The National Interest no. 16 (Summer 1989) pp. 3–18; idem, The End of History and the Last Man Hamilton 1992. On ‘post 1989-optimism’, see Thomas Bagger ‘The World According to Germany: Reassessing 1989’ Washington Quarterly 41, 4 (Winter 2019) pp. 53–63 Back to text 4. Cf. for example George Lawson et al. (eds) The Global 1989: Continuity and Change in World Politics Cambridge UP 2010; Richard K.

Meanwhile, the GATT – forged after the Great Depression and the Second World War – was transmuted under US pressure into a more open World Trade Organisation – a body that would eventually include a communist-capitalist PRC and a post-Soviet Russia. To some, it seemed that ‘the West’ and its way of doing things had triumphed. In a famous and widely misunderstood book, the political scientist Francis Fukuyama spoke of ‘the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’ – in short ‘the end of history’.[5] Yet, it was people on the streets who drove the revolutionary wave of 1989. From Tallinn to Tirana, from Berlin to Bucharest, they marched, demonstrated and rebelled. East Germans travelled hundreds of miles in their Trabants, rushed border checkpoints and ran across fields hoping that no one would open fire, to pierce the Iron Curtain in a myriad of places.

On leaders making choices in 1989–92, see Zelikow & Rice To Build a Better World Back to text 5. Russia joined the WTO (previously GATT) in 2012 after nineteen years of ‘tortuous negotiations’, China in 2001 after fifteen years of talks. Catherine Belton ‘Russia joins WTO after nineteen years of talks’ FT 22.8.2012; ‘China Joins WTO Ranks’ NYT 12.12.2001. Fukuyama ‘The End of History?’ p. 4 and idem, The End of History p. 330 Back to text 6. GHWBPL Scowcroft SSCNF-CF China 1989 (sensitive) (OA/ID 91136–001) Memcon of Deng–Scowcroft talks 2.7.1989 10:00 a.m. Great Hall of the People Beijing p. 5 Back to text 7. Bush & Scowcroft A World Transformed p. 9 Back to text 8. Jan Orbie ‘Civilian Power Europe – Review of the Original and Current Debates’ Cooperation and Conflict 41, 1 (2006) pp. 123–8; Smith ‘Beyond the Civilian Power EU Debate’ pp. 63–82 Back to text 9.


America Right or Wrong: An Anatomy of American Nationalism by Anatol Lieven

"World Economic Forum" Davos, American ideology, British Empire, centre right, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, cuban missile crisis, desegregation, driverless car, European colonialism, failed state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gunnar Myrdal, illegal immigration, income inequality, laissez-faire capitalism, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, millennium bug, mittelstand, Monroe Doctrine, moral hazard, moral panic, new economy, Norman Mailer, oil shock, open immigration, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert Bork, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Thomas L Friedman, Timothy McVeigh, World Values Survey, Y2K

Partly in consequence, this set of assumptions is also basically optimistic. It suggests both that the United States has achieved the highest possible form of political system and that this great system can be extended to the rest of humanity. 48 THESIS: SPLENDOR AND TRAGEDY OF THE AMERICAN CREED Centuries before Francis Fukuyama recoined the phrase, a certain belief that America represented the "end of history" was already common in American thought and still more in the American subconscious. "I alone inaugurating largeness, culminating time," as Walt Whitman put it, speaking for his country.6 In Richard Hofstadter's words, "It has been our fate as a nation not to have ideologies but to be one."7 This American Thesis is also, both in belief and in reality, the core foundation of America's "soft power" in the world and of its role as a civilizational empire: the American version ofRomanita.

The collapse of Soviet communism greatly helped in the restoration of the American ideological and mythical self-image after Vietnam. It also reduced still further any perceived need to take the opinions of the rest of the world into account. The collapse of communism combined with the messianic elements in the American tradition to produce an attitude summed up in Fukuyama's "End of History" thesis. This proposition was so extreme that it was widely challenged, and indeed eventually Fukuyama himself moved to much more moderate and sophisticated positions. However, as I wrote in 1996, the spirit which it reflected became so omnipresent in the U.S. media and political discourse that it was rarely noticed, let alone analyzed or criticized.

The West's immense wealth and security compared to most societies on this planet makes lecturing them rather than giving them serious economic aid singularly indecent; and if we look back only a few decades, we will find our own societies guilty of monstrous crimes of racism, aggression and oppression. If we look back not much more than a century, we will often find them guilty of what would now be called genocide. If we have any sense at all of history, we should know that our system does not represent the "end of history," is not divinely ordained, and will not last forever. It is already clear, for example, that if the environmental challenges facing us reach really severe dimensions, then Western free market democracy in general, and the American version in particular, will fail to meet these challenges just as completely as the Chinese Confucian order failed to meet the challenge of Western modernization in the nineteenth century and many Muslim societies are failing in this regard today.


pages: 530 words: 154,505

Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu by Anshel Pfeffer

Ayatollah Khomeini, British Empire, centre right, different worldview, Donald Trump, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, full employment, high net worth, illegal immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, Mount Scopus, Occupy movement, offshore financial centre, pre–internet, Ronald Reagan, Silicon Valley, Steve Bannon, Stuxnet, Thomas L Friedman, uranium enrichment, Yom Kippur War

I have already noted that for the foreseeable future the only kind of peace that will endure in the region between Arab and Arab and between Arab and Jew is the peace of deterrence.4 Netanyahu’s view of history is bleak. Writing immediately after the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, he attacked the “end of history” theory, made fashionable then by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama. The fall of communism in Eastern Europe was indeed proof that democracy could prevail, even among the Arabs, but there were no guarantees. International relations must still be based on military deterrence. There must be no question of Israel relinquishing control of the West Bank and the Golan Heights, vital buffer zones for a tiny state surrounded by enemies.

., 301, 315, 329 Cairo Agreement, 203 Camp David Accords, 133–135 Camp David summit, Barak’s, 281, 284 campaign finance, 302–303 Carter, Jimmy, 133–134, 217 Cates, Fleur, 130–131, 136–137, 148, 156, 167, 173–174 Center Party (Mifleget Ha’Merkaz), 270 Charlie Hebdo, 351 chemical weapons, 346–348 China, 325 Chomsky, Noam, 106 Christianity and the Christian population, 20, 54, 142–143, 373–374 Christopher, Warren, 255–256 citizenship, Netanyahu’s, 142 Clinton, Bill, 199, 206, 217, 219–220, 228, 232–233, 236, 240–242, 254–255, 260–261, 262(fig.), 263–266, 268, 273, 281, 284, 315 Clinton, Hillary, 312–313, 317, 371 Cohen, Yossi, 363–364 Cold War: “end of history” theory, 195 colonialism, Israeli occupation as, 105–106 corruption criminal investigation of Netanyahu for financial wrongdoing, 281–283 Ehud Olmert, 303–304 investigations of Netanyahu and associates, 379–383 last four prime ministers, 284 Leah Rabin, 128 Neeman’s attack by the legal establishment, 247 Netanyahu’s cabinet, 247–249 Netanyahu’s private upkeep on public funds, 355–356 Shas’s leader, 275 cultural Zionism, 28 Dagan, Meir, 329–331, 333, 356–357, 363 Dayan, Ilana, 365 Dayan, Moshe, 73–74, 97, 139 debates, campaign, 231–232, 277 Deri, Arye, 230, 248, 258, 275 Dermer, Ron, 299, 346, 354, 360, 373, 375 direct election of the prime minister, 183–185, 220, 286 disengagement agreements, 111–112, 293–296 Diskin, Yuval, 329–331 Draper, Morris, 143–145 Eagleburger, Lawrence, 144–145 East Jerusalem, 74, 174, 176, 244–245, 262, 284, 297, 316–317, 368 Eban, Abba, 70, 85, 112 economic policies Ayn Rand influencing Netanyahu’s, 67 Ben-Gurion’s Israel, 57–58 Gush Herut-Liberalim, 108 Netanyahu as finance minister, 290–292 Netanyahu’s failure to change Israel’s economy, 249–250 Netanyahu’s first administration, 238–240 Netanyahu’s private upkeep on public funds, 355–356 Netanyahu’s targeted 2009 campaign, 305–306 resistance to reform, 1–2 tent protests and social protest movement, 320–321 economic status, Israel’s, 1–2, 26, 99–100, 137, 234 The Economist magazine, 251 Egypt border fence with Israel, 1–4 Camp David Accords, 133–135 disengagement agreement, 111–112 Gaza violence, 350–360 Kissinger’s shuttle diplomacy, 110 Nasser’s death, 95 Netanyahu’s alliance with Sisi, 379 Nixon’s presidential visit, 110–111 Obama’s presidential visit, 318–320 Operation Frenzy, 82–83 Sadat’s peace proposal, 95–96 Sinai Campaign, 58–59 Six-Day War, 69–73 Soviet support, 58 Summit of Peacemakers, 228 War of Attrition, 82–83, 85–86 Yom Kippur War, 95–99 Eitan, Rafael, 226, 270 Elazar, David “Dado,” 97–98 elections (Israel) attempts to oust Netanyahu through early elections, 269–271 Barak and Netanyahu in 1999, 160–161, 278–279 Barak’s challenge to Netanyahu, 89 direct election of the prime minister, 183–185, 220, 286 Fleur’s avoidance of the campaign trail, 174 Israeli strike on Iran as election issue, 338–339 Likud’s collapse, 297–298 Likud’s debut in 1973, 108–109 Likud’s increasing presence, 361–362 Netanyahu and Livni’s electoral stalemate, 307–308 Netanyahu’s bid for leadership in 1992, 185–187 Netanyahu’s first administration, 238–240 Netanyahu’s first campaign, 166–170 1995, 221–222 1999 campaign strategy and image, 271–276 Netanyahu’s 1995 campaign, 222–236 November 1993 local elections, 201 political aftermath of Rabin’s assassination, 220–221 re-election in 2013, 342 Revisionist parties in Israel’s first elections, 51 Sharon’s 2001 victories over Netanyahu and Labor, 289–290 stalemate in 1984, 153–156 “trust” campaign in 2015, 353–357 “winner’s campaign” of 2009, 305–308 Zionist lobbying in 1944, 35–36 elections (US), 148, 224, 371–376 electoral reform, 183–185 Encyclopedia Hebraica, 55–56, 58, 61 “end of history” theory, 195 Entebbe raid, 116–123 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip, 345–346 Eshel, Nathan, 303 Eshkol, Levi, 69–71, 76, 80, 84, 108 ethnic cleansing of Arabs, 123 Fatah, 68–69, 78–80, 86, 318, 322 financial crisis (2008–2011), 2 financial scandals, Netanyahu’s, 379–380 Finkelstein, Arthur, 223–224, 234, 271–272, 277, 285 Ford, Gerald, 111 foreign policy (Israel), 1–3, 161–162, 316 foreign policy (US) Carter’s stance on a Palestinian state, 133–134 Netanyahu’s criticism of Bush policy, 173 Obama’s Middle East policy, 314–315 pressure on Israel from the Bush administration, 174–175 Trump’s lack of interest in, 377–378 US as strategic ally for Israel, 105–106 Forsyth, Frederick, 178 The Fountainhead (Rand), 67 France, 58–59, 80, 351, 365–366 Frenkel, Yaakov, 239, 249 Fukuyama, Francis, 195 Gahal (Gush Herut-Liberalim), 108 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 18 Gates, Robert, 173 Gaza Ayyash assassination and subsequent violence, 221–222 Begin’s peace plan, 144–145 disengagement, 293–296 Egypt under Sisi, 379 First Intifada, 164–165 Gilad Shalit’s imprisonment, 321–323 Hamas coup, 349–351 Hamas electoral victory, 297 Hamas violence in, 349–350 Hebron Agreement, 244–246 Netanyahu’s “peace plan,” 200–201 Operation Pillar of Defense, 241, 342 Oslo process, 198–204, 208–210 PFLP violence, 78 Second Intifada, 285–286 Gemayel, Bashir, 144–145 Gesher party, 207–208, 226–227, 260, 270 Golan Heights Law, 140–141 Gold, Dore, 197, 240, 242–243, 363 Goldstein, Baruch, 202–203 Gore, Al, 258 Greenblatt, Jason, 374, 376 Groisser, Leon, 91–92 Gulf War (1991), 176–178, 180, 335 Ha ‘Tehiya party, 183 Haaretz newspaper, 364 Habib, Philip, 143–144 Haganah, 19, 25–27, 29, 36–41, 44, 54, 56 Haig, Alexander, 141–142 Hamas, 192–193, 203–204, 221–223, 250–251, 318, 321–323, 341–342, 349–361 Hanegbi, Tzachi, 187, 203–204, 247 Haram al-Shari, Sharon’s tour of, 285 Haran, Miriam (Miki Weizmann), 91 Haredi leadership, 258–259, 274–276 Hariri, Rafik, 256 Harow, Ari, 299, 306–307, 380–381 hasbara (Zionist diplomacy strategy), 33, 165–166, 196, 259 Hassan of Jordan, 205 Ha’Tnuah (The Movement) party, 343 Hatzohar (World Union of Zionist Revisionists), 17–19 Ha’Yarden (The Jordan) newspaper, 22, 24–25 Hazony, Yoram, 197 Hebrew language, 11–12, 20–22 Hebrew University, 20, 27–28, 52–54, 58, 81 Hebron Agreement (1997), 244, 246–248, 268, 284 Herut (Freedom) party, 50–51, 106–107, 270 Herzl, Theodor, 10–11, 28 Herzog, Chaim, 175 Herzog, Isaac “Buzhi,” 356, 358–359, 363 Hezbollah, 146, 193, 206, 228–229, 254, 285, 332, 347, 377–378 Hoenlein, Malcolm, 157 Holocaust, 318–319, 325, 352 “hot tape” scandal, 187–190, 220, 232, 272 Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion), 10–12 Hussein, Saddam, 176, 261 Hussein of Jordan, 205, 251, 264, 276 IDF (Israel Defense Forces) Ben-Gurion’s Israel, 57–58 covert intelligence missions, 75–78 Entebbe raid, 116–123 exemption of the ultra-Orthodox from service, 274–275 Hamas violence in Gaza and the West Bank, 349–350 Israeli control in Jerusalem, 51–52 Israeli strike on Iran, 327–329, 331–339, 341 Israel’s air strikes on Syria’s nuclear reactor, 324–325 Netanyahu distancing himself from, 253–255 Operation Protective Edge, 349–361 Operation Wrath of God, 94 Oslo process terms, 203 Second Intifada, 244–245, 285 Second Lebanon War, 300–301 Sinai Campaign, 58–59 Six-Day War, 70–74 Syrian plans to recover the Golan Heights, 255–256 war in Lebanon, 142–148 Yom Kippur War, 95–99 See also military service, Netanyahu’s immigrants and refugees border fence as obstacle to, 3–4 British cap on, 27 German Jews’ migration to Palestine, 22–23 Jabotinsky’s European evacuation plan, 26 Netanyahu family’s move to Israel, 48–49 Netanyahu wooing Soviet Jewish voters, 230–231 postwar Zionism, 38–40 practical Zionism, 11 Russian voters’ stance on Likud and Labor, 275 Soviet Jewish refugees, 180–182 Soviet Jews, 180–182 US Rogers Plan for Palestinians, 85–86 independence day celebration, 258–259 inequality, social and economic, 1–2, 320–321 Intifada, First, 164–165, 192–193 Intifada, Second, 285, 287, 292 Iran, 359–360 as the source of conflict in the Middle East, 176 Dagan’s security concerns, 330–331 Israeli strike on, 327–329, 331–339, 341 Israel’s Begin Doctrine on nuclear weapons, 324–327 Netanyahu’s American political allies, 313–314 Netanyahu’s congressional address protesting the nuclear deal, 354–355 P5+1 talks, 259–260 sanctions, 335–336 Syria’s conflict, 377–378 US agreement, 346, 348–349 Iraq as the source of conflict in the Middle East, 176 Gulf War, 176–178 Israeli bombing of nuclear reactor, 139–140 nuclear ambitions, 324 Soviet support, 58 US war in, 288, 326 Irgun Zvai Leumi (IZL), 25–27, 29–31, 33, 36–37, 40–41, 49–50, 152 Iron Fence, 3–4 Islamic fundamentalism, 194–195 Israel Defense Forces.

.), 263–266, 268, 273, 281, 284, 315 Clinton, Hillary, 312–313, 317, 371 Cohen, Yossi, 363–364 Cold War: “end of history” theory, 195 colonialism, Israeli occupation as, 105–106 corruption criminal investigation of Netanyahu for financial wrongdoing, 281–283 Ehud Olmert, 303–304 investigations of Netanyahu and associates, 379–383 last four prime ministers, 284 Leah Rabin, 128 Neeman’s attack by the legal establishment, 247 Netanyahu’s cabinet, 247–249 Netanyahu’s private upkeep on public funds, 355–356 Shas’s leader, 275 cultural Zionism, 28 Dagan, Meir, 329–331, 333, 356–357, 363 Dayan, Ilana, 365 Dayan, Moshe, 73–74, 97, 139 debates, campaign, 231–232, 277 Deri, Arye, 230, 248, 258, 275 Dermer, Ron, 299, 346, 354, 360, 373, 375 direct election of the prime minister, 183–185, 220, 286 disengagement agreements, 111–112, 293–296 Diskin, Yuval, 329–331 Draper, Morris, 143–145 Eagleburger, Lawrence, 144–145 East Jerusalem, 74, 174, 176, 244–245, 262, 284, 297, 316–317, 368 Eban, Abba, 70, 85, 112 economic policies Ayn Rand influencing Netanyahu’s, 67 Ben-Gurion’s Israel, 57–58 Gush Herut-Liberalim, 108 Netanyahu as finance minister, 290–292 Netanyahu’s failure to change Israel’s economy, 249–250 Netanyahu’s first administration, 238–240 Netanyahu’s private upkeep on public funds, 355–356 Netanyahu’s targeted 2009 campaign, 305–306 resistance to reform, 1–2 tent protests and social protest movement, 320–321 economic status, Israel’s, 1–2, 26, 99–100, 137, 234 The Economist magazine, 251 Egypt border fence with Israel, 1–4 Camp David Accords, 133–135 disengagement agreement, 111–112 Gaza violence, 350–360 Kissinger’s shuttle diplomacy, 110 Nasser’s death, 95 Netanyahu’s alliance with Sisi, 379 Nixon’s presidential visit, 110–111 Obama’s presidential visit, 318–320 Operation Frenzy, 82–83 Sadat’s peace proposal, 95–96 Sinai Campaign, 58–59 Six-Day War, 69–73 Soviet support, 58 Summit of Peacemakers, 228 War of Attrition, 82–83, 85–86 Yom Kippur War, 95–99 Eitan, Rafael, 226, 270 Elazar, David “Dado,” 97–98 elections (Israel) attempts to oust Netanyahu through early elections, 269–271 Barak and Netanyahu in 1999, 160–161, 278–279 Barak’s challenge to Netanyahu, 89 direct election of the prime minister, 183–185, 220, 286 Fleur’s avoidance of the campaign trail, 174 Israeli strike on Iran as election issue, 338–339 Likud’s collapse, 297–298 Likud’s debut in 1973, 108–109 Likud’s increasing presence, 361–362 Netanyahu and Livni’s electoral stalemate, 307–308 Netanyahu’s bid for leadership in 1992, 185–187 Netanyahu’s first administration, 238–240 Netanyahu’s first campaign, 166–170 1995, 221–222 1999 campaign strategy and image, 271–276 Netanyahu’s 1995 campaign, 222–236 November 1993 local elections, 201 political aftermath of Rabin’s assassination, 220–221 re-election in 2013, 342 Revisionist parties in Israel’s first elections, 51 Sharon’s 2001 victories over Netanyahu and Labor, 289–290 stalemate in 1984, 153–156 “trust” campaign in 2015, 353–357 “winner’s campaign” of 2009, 305–308 Zionist lobbying in 1944, 35–36 elections (US), 148, 224, 371–376 electoral reform, 183–185 Encyclopedia Hebraica, 55–56, 58, 61 “end of history” theory, 195 Entebbe raid, 116–123 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip, 345–346 Eshel, Nathan, 303 Eshkol, Levi, 69–71, 76, 80, 84, 108 ethnic cleansing of Arabs, 123 Fatah, 68–69, 78–80, 86, 318, 322 financial crisis (2008–2011), 2 financial scandals, Netanyahu’s, 379–380 Finkelstein, Arthur, 223–224, 234, 271–272, 277, 285 Ford, Gerald, 111 foreign policy (Israel), 1–3, 161–162, 316 foreign policy (US) Carter’s stance on a Palestinian state, 133–134 Netanyahu’s criticism of Bush policy, 173 Obama’s Middle East policy, 314–315 pressure on Israel from the Bush administration, 174–175 Trump’s lack of interest in, 377–378 US as strategic ally for Israel, 105–106 Forsyth, Frederick, 178 The Fountainhead (Rand), 67 France, 58–59, 80, 351, 365–366 Frenkel, Yaakov, 239, 249 Fukuyama, Francis, 195 Gahal (Gush Herut-Liberalim), 108 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 18 Gates, Robert, 173 Gaza Ayyash assassination and subsequent violence, 221–222 Begin’s peace plan, 144–145 disengagement, 293–296 Egypt under Sisi, 379 First Intifada, 164–165 Gilad Shalit’s imprisonment, 321–323 Hamas coup, 349–351 Hamas electoral victory, 297 Hamas violence in, 349–350 Hebron Agreement, 244–246 Netanyahu’s “peace plan,” 200–201 Operation Pillar of Defense, 241, 342 Oslo process, 198–204, 208–210 PFLP violence, 78 Second Intifada, 285–286 Gemayel, Bashir, 144–145 Gesher party, 207–208, 226–227, 260, 270 Golan Heights Law, 140–141 Gold, Dore, 197, 240, 242–243, 363 Goldstein, Baruch, 202–203 Gore, Al, 258 Greenblatt, Jason, 374, 376 Groisser, Leon, 91–92 Gulf War (1991), 176–178, 180, 335 Ha ‘Tehiya party, 183 Haaretz newspaper, 364 Habib, Philip, 143–144 Haganah, 19, 25–27, 29, 36–41, 44, 54, 56 Haig, Alexander, 141–142 Hamas, 192–193, 203–204, 221–223, 250–251, 318, 321–323, 341–342, 349–361 Hanegbi, Tzachi, 187, 203–204, 247 Haram al-Shari, Sharon’s tour of, 285 Haran, Miriam (Miki Weizmann), 91 Haredi leadership, 258–259, 274–276 Hariri, Rafik, 256 Harow, Ari, 299, 306–307, 380–381 hasbara (Zionist diplomacy strategy), 33, 165–166, 196, 259 Hassan of Jordan, 205 Ha’Tnuah (The Movement) party, 343 Hatzohar (World Union of Zionist Revisionists), 17–19 Ha’Yarden (The Jordan) newspaper, 22, 24–25 Hazony, Yoram, 197 Hebrew language, 11–12, 20–22 Hebrew University, 20, 27–28, 52–54, 58, 81 Hebron Agreement (1997), 244, 246–248, 268, 284 Herut (Freedom) party, 50–51, 106–107, 270 Herzl, Theodor, 10–11, 28 Herzog, Chaim, 175 Herzog, Isaac “Buzhi,” 356, 358–359, 363 Hezbollah, 146, 193, 206, 228–229, 254, 285, 332, 347, 377–378 Hoenlein, Malcolm, 157 Holocaust, 318–319, 325, 352 “hot tape” scandal, 187–190, 220, 232, 272 Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion), 10–12 Hussein, Saddam, 176, 261 Hussein of Jordan, 205, 251, 264, 276 IDF (Israel Defense Forces) Ben-Gurion’s Israel, 57–58 covert intelligence missions, 75–78 Entebbe raid, 116–123 exemption of the ultra-Orthodox from service, 274–275 Hamas violence in Gaza and the West Bank, 349–350 Israeli control in Jerusalem, 51–52 Israeli strike on Iran, 327–329, 331–339, 341 Israel’s air strikes on Syria’s nuclear reactor, 324–325 Netanyahu distancing himself from, 253–255 Operation Protective Edge, 349–361 Operation Wrath of God, 94 Oslo process terms, 203 Second Intifada, 244–245, 285 Second Lebanon War, 300–301 Sinai Campaign, 58–59 Six-Day War, 70–74 Syrian plans to recover the Golan Heights, 255–256 war in Lebanon, 142–148 Yom Kippur War, 95–99 See also military service, Netanyahu’s immigrants and refugees border fence as obstacle to, 3–4 British cap on, 27 German Jews’ migration to Palestine, 22–23 Jabotinsky’s European evacuation plan, 26 Netanyahu family’s move to Israel, 48–49 Netanyahu wooing Soviet Jewish voters, 230–231 postwar Zionism, 38–40 practical Zionism, 11 Russian voters’ stance on Likud and Labor, 275 Soviet Jewish refugees, 180–182 Soviet Jews, 180–182 US Rogers Plan for Palestinians, 85–86 independence day celebration, 258–259 inequality, social and economic, 1–2, 320–321 Intifada, First, 164–165, 192–193 Intifada, Second, 285, 287, 292 Iran, 359–360 as the source of conflict in the Middle East, 176 Dagan’s security concerns, 330–331 Israeli strike on, 327–329, 331–339, 341 Israel’s Begin Doctrine on nuclear weapons, 324–327 Netanyahu’s American political allies, 313–314 Netanyahu’s congressional address protesting the nuclear deal, 354–355 P5+1 talks, 259–260 sanctions, 335–336 Syria’s conflict, 377–378 US agreement, 346, 348–349 Iraq as the source of conflict in the Middle East, 176 Gulf War, 176–178 Israeli bombing of nuclear reactor, 139–140 nuclear ambitions, 324 Soviet support, 58 US war in, 288, 326 Irgun Zvai Leumi (IZL), 25–27, 29–31, 33, 36–37, 40–41, 49–50, 152 Iron Fence, 3–4 Islamic fundamentalism, 194–195 Israel Defense Forces.


pages: 613 words: 151,140

No Such Thing as Society by Andy McSmith

"there is no alternative" (TINA), anti-communist, Ayatollah Khomeini, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Black Monday: stock market crash in 1987, Bob Geldof, Boris Johnson, British Empire, Brixton riot, Bullingdon Club, call centre, cuban missile crisis, Etonian, F. W. de Klerk, Farzad Bazoft, feminist movement, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, full employment, glass ceiling, God and Mammon, greed is good, illegal immigration, index card, John Bercow, Kickstarter, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, Live Aid, loadsamoney, long peace, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, mortgage debt, mutually assured destruction, negative equity, Neil Kinnock, Nelson Mandela, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, old-boy network, popular capitalism, Right to Buy, Ronald Reagan, Rubik’s Cube, Sloane Ranger, South Sea Bubble, spread of share-ownership, Stephen Fry, strikebreaker, Suez crisis 1956, The Chicago School, union organizing, upwardly mobile, urban decay, Winter of Discontent, young professional

Handwritten draft by Margaret Thatcher for a speech to be delivered. This was also among the batch of documents released on 30 January 2010. 11. John Hills et al., An Anatomy of Economic Inequality in the UK – Report of the National Equality Panel, Government Equalities Office, London, 2010, p. 41, p. 27. 12. The Times, 14 October 1981. 13. Francis Fukuyama’s essay ‘The End of History?’ first appeared in the magazine The National Interest in 1989. 14. She used this expression in a valedictory interview with ITN, broadcast 28 June 1991. CHAPTER 1 1. Kenneth Williams, The Kenneth Williams Diaries, edited by Russell Davies, HarperCollins, London, 1993, p. 581. 2.

No established communist system had ever been dismantled or overthrown from within. People expected this contest between rival systems to continue indefinitely. Instead, they saw it coming to a quick, decisive and non-violent end. As communism rolled out of Eastern Europe in 1989, an American philosopher forecast that the end of history was approaching13 and that every other political system in the world would evolve into the western model of liberal capitalism. These developments were mirrored in domestic politics. Since 1945, the UK had edged towards becoming more ‘socialist’, with free medicine, free schools, state pensions and more than 40 per cent of the country’s industrial capacity owned by the state.


pages: 665 words: 146,542

Money: 5,000 Years of Debt and Power by Michel Aglietta

accelerated depreciation, Alan Greenspan, bank run, banking crisis, Basel III, Berlin Wall, bitcoin, blockchain, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, capital asset pricing model, capital controls, cashless society, central bank independence, circular economy, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, corporate governance, David Graeber, debt deflation, dematerialisation, Deng Xiaoping, double entry bookkeeping, energy transition, eurozone crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, financial deregulation, financial innovation, Financial Instability Hypothesis, financial intermediation, floating exchange rates, forward guidance, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, German hyperinflation, income inequality, inflation targeting, information asymmetry, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of writing, invisible hand, joint-stock company, Kenneth Arrow, Kickstarter, land bank, liquidity trap, low interest rates, margin call, means of production, Money creation, money market fund, moral hazard, Nash equilibrium, Network effects, Northern Rock, oil shock, planetary scale, plutocrats, precautionary principle, price stability, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, reserve currency, secular stagnation, seigniorage, shareholder value, special drawing rights, special economic zone, stochastic process, Suez crisis 1956, the payments system, the scientific method, tontine, too big to fail, trade route, transaction costs, transcontinental railway, Washington Consensus

The underestimation, or even outright ignorance, of the oppositions between Anglo-Saxon liberalism, the French nation-state, and the German and Russian empires ought to have sounded the alarm for the latent conflicts in the international sphere. But the Anglo-Saxon philosophers of the Belle Époque, just like Francis Fukuyama after the fall of the Berlin Wall, were quick to extol the end of history. They believed themselves to be carrying forth universal values, and that it was their mission to introduce them around the world. And what better vehicle for, indeed, this than finance? The pound sterling’s longstanding gold convertibility sanctioned its preponderance as a key currency.

Recognising this allows us to steer clear of the reflexively Western orientation formalised by the English liberal school from the seventeenth century onwards, the notion of a natural order that gave rise to the theory of equilibrium. Its historical success in the age of the gold standard was not, in fact, the end of history. We have already outlined three postulates that will guide our historical investigation: (1) money resembles a language, the language of accounting; (2) money is a system, the payment system, which links it to technology; and (3) money is overseen by a principle of sovereignty that confers on it a common legitimacy within the space of sovereignty under consideration.


How to Be a Liberal: The Story of Liberalism and the Fight for Its Life by Ian Dunt

4chan, Alan Greenspan, Alfred Russel Wallace, bank run, battle of ideas, Bear Stearns, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Boris Johnson, bounce rate, Brexit referendum, British Empire, Brixton riot, Cambridge Analytica, Carmen Reinhart, centre right, classic study, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, disinformation, Dominic Cummings, Donald Trump, eurozone crisis, experimental subject, fake news, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Glass-Steagall Act, Growth in a Time of Debt, illegal immigration, invisible hand, John Bercow, Kenneth Rogoff, liberal world order, low interest rates, Mark Zuckerberg, mass immigration, means of production, Mohammed Bouazizi, Northern Rock, old-boy network, Paul Samuelson, Peter Thiel, Phillips curve, price mechanism, profit motive, quantitative easing, recommendation engine, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, Scientific racism, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley billionaire, Steve Bannon, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, too big to fail, upwardly mobile, Winter of Discontent, working poor, zero-sum game

He died a year later, at the age of 92. The end of the USSR was considered the complete historical triumph of the laissez-faire model. Two opposing economic extremes had faced each other: communism and unfettered capitalism. And now one of them was victorious. The American political economist Francis Fukuyama suggested it could effectively be ‘the end of history.’ For years, politicians and academics all over the western world acted as if that was the end of the story, as if all matters of economic consideration in human affairs were now closed. By the time centre-left parties had fought their way back into power in the 1990s – under Democratic President Bill Clinton in the US and New Labour prime minister Tony Blair in the UK – they had largely accepted the deregulation agenda.

See also USA (United States of America) American Civil War 1 American Revolution 1, 2, 3, 4 British colonialism 1 Declaration of Independence 1, 2, 3 exclusion 1 independence and France 1 slavery 1 Amish community 1 ancient constitution 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Andrews, Kehinde 1 Angelina, Pasha 1 anti-racism 1, 2 Anti-Semitic League, France 1 anti-semitism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 apartheid 1 Arab Spring 1, 2 Aristotle 1, 2, 3 Article 50 1, 2 Articles of Confederation 1, 2 Asch, Solomon 1 al-Assad, Bashar 1, 2 asset-backed commercial paper 1 assignats 1, 2, 3 asylum seekers 1, 2, 3 atheism 1, 2 Atlantic Charter 1 Augustine, St 1 Auschwitz 1 austerity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Austria 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 authentic self 1, 2 automatic stabilisers 1, 2, 3 autonomy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Azam, Sher 1 Babcock, Barbara 1 Bagehot, Walter 1 Bailey, Michael 1 balanced budgets 1, 2, 3 Bank of America 1, 2 banks anti-semitism 1 deregulation 1, 2 emergency rescue measures 1 Greece financial crisis 1 interest rates 1 post-war policy 1 securitisation 1, 2 securitisation risks 1 securitisation system collapse 1 Wall Street Crash 1 Bannon, Steve 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Baraka, Amiri 1 Barroso, José Manuel 1 Barry, Brian 1 Bartlett, Jamie 1 Bartolo, Pietro 1 Bastille 1, 2, 3 Bastwick, John 1 Bear Stearns 1, 2, 3 Beigui, Dariush 1 belonging Berlin on 1, 2, 3, 4 identity 1, 2, 3 Orwell on 1, 2 Belzec camp 1 Ben Ali, Zine El Abidine 1 Benedict, Ruth 1 Bentham, Jeremy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Beradt, Charlotte 1 Bercow, John 1 Beria, Lavrentiy 1 Berlin, Isaiah development of liberal values 1 early life 1 group identity 1, 2, 3, 4 identity and belonging 1, 2 Jewish identity 1, 2 liberal theory 1 on Mill 1 pluralism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Second World War work 1 Berlusconi, Silvio 1, 2 Bernanke, Ben 1, 2 Berners-Lee, Tim 1 Bespalov, Vitaly 1, 2 Bible 1, 2 bicameral legislature 1, 2, 3 Bill of Rights 1, 2 Black, Hannah 1 black identity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 black women 1, 2 Blair, Tony 1, 2 bloggers 1 BNP Paribas 1, 2 Boer War 1 Bolsheviks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Bonaparte, Joseph 1 Bonaparte, Napoleon 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Borchard, Ruth 1 Boston (Tea Party) 1 Bouazizi, Mohamed 1, 2 Bradford Council for Mosques 1 Breitbart 1, 2, 3 Breivik, Anders 1 Brexit EU referendum 1 government response and May 1 Johnson as prime minister 1 Trump and nationalism 1 Bridges, George 1 Brixton riots 1 Brown, Gordon 1, 2 brownshirts 1, 2, 3, 4 Brown, Winthrop 1 Bruno, Giordano 1 Buchenwald camp 1 Burghart, Devin 1 Burke, Edmund 1 Burton, Henry 1 call-out culture 1 Cambridge Analytica 1 Cameron, David 1, 2, 3 cancel culture 1 capital goods theory 1, 2 capitalism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Carlyle, Thomas 1, 2, 3 Carrier, Jean-Baptiste 1 Carter, Jimmy 1 The Case of the Army Truly Stated 1, 2, 3 Castile, Philando 1 Catholicism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 CDOs (collateralised debt obligations) 1, 2, 3, 4 Cecil the lion 1 censorship 1, 2, 3, 4 Central America 1 Charles I 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Charles II 1, 2 Charrière, Isabelle de 1 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 1 Chelmno camp 1 child separation 1 China 1 Churchill, Winston 1, 2, 3, 4 Church of England 1, 2, 3 cities 1, 2 City of London 1, 2, 3 Civil Rights Act 1 class 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 classical economics 1, 2, 3 climate change 1 Clinton, Bill 1, 2 collateralised debt obligations (CDOs) 1, 2, 3, 4 collateral rehypothecation 1 Collini, Stefan 1 colonialism 1, 2, 3 Combahee River Collective 1, 2 commercial paper 1, 2, 3 communism emergence of 1 Germany 1, 2 identity and belonging 1 Marx 1 post-war economics 1, 2 Russia 1, 2, 3, 4 Soviet Union collapse 1 Communist Party 1, 2, 3 community of the free 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 concentration camps 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 conformity 1, 2, 3 consent 1, 2, 3 Conservative party 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 Constant, Benjamin Adolphe 1, 2 affairs 1, 2 ‘le benjamin’ constitution 1, 2 character and thinking 1 development of liberal values 1, 2, 3 early years 1 and Hardenberg 1 and Madame de Staël 1, 2, 3, 4 and Mill 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and Napoleon 1, 2, 3, 4 Principles of Politics Applicable to All Governments 1 property rights 1, 2, 3 on Rousseau 1 The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation and Their Relation to European Civilisation 1 Constant, Juste 1, 2, 3 Conway, Kellyanne 1 Copernicus, Nicolaus 1, 2, 3 On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres 1 Cornwallis, Charles 1 Council of Europe 1, 2 Cox, Jo 1 credit rating agencies 1, 2, 3 Creighton, Mandell 1 Crenshaw, Kimberlé 1 Cromwell, Oliver 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Cult of the Supreme Being 1 cultural appropriation 1, 2 cultural identity 1, 2 cultural relativism 1, 2 culture war 1, 2, 3 Cummings, Dominic 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Curtin, John 1 customs border 1 customs union 1, 2, 3 DACA (Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals) 1 Dachau camp 1, 2 Danton, George 1, 2, 3, 4 Darwin, Charles On the Origin of Species 1 Davis, Michele 1 debt restructuring 1, 2, 3 Declaration of Independence 1, 2, 3 Declaration of the Rights of Man 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 deep state 1, 2, 3, 4 Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) 1 demand 1, 2, 3 democracy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Denmark 1, 2 Department of Homeland Security 1, 2 deregulation 1, 2 Descartes, René birth of liberalism 1, 2, 3 birth of science 1 character 1 Cogito 1, 2, 3, 4 Discourse on the Method 1 doubt 1, 2, 3 dreams 1 evil demon theory 1, 2 Meditations on First Philosophy 1, 2, 3, 4 religion 1, 2 senses 1 The World 1 difference 1, 2, 3 disability 1 discrimination 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 disinformation 1, 2 dissent 1, 2 divine right 1, 2, 3 Dorsey, Jack 1 doubt Constant 1 Descartes 1, 2, 3 Mill 1, 2, 3 Milton 1 Puritans 1 Rousseau 1 social media outrage 1 Douglas, Lord Alfred 1 Downs, Jim 1 Dreamers 1 Dreyfus, Alfred 1, 2, 3 Dreyfus Affair 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 drug use 1 Drumont, Édouard 1, 2 Duclos, Benoit 1 ECB (European Central Bank) 1, 2, 3, 4 echo chamber 1 ECHR (European Convention on Human Rights) 1, 2 economic growth 1, 2, 3 economics Hayek and Keynes 1, 2 Mill and Taylor 1 post-war rebuilding 1 Smith 1 Eden, Anthony 1 education 1, 2, 3, 4 egalitarian liberalism 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Egypt 1 Eicke, Theodor 1 Eisenhower, Dwight 1 Electoral College 1 Eleven Years’ Tyranny 1 Eliot, TS 1 elite 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 empathy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 end of history 1 enemies of the people EU referendum 1, 2 French Revolution aftermath 1 nationalism 1 Russia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 enemies of the state 1 English Civil War Constant on 1 effects 1, 2 events of 1, 2 origins of liberalism 1 printing 1 English Defence League 1 Enragés (Enraged Ones) 1 Environmental Protection Agency 1 epistemology 1 equality 1, 2, 3, 4 equal pay 1 Erdogan, Recep Tayyip 1, 2 Estates General 1, 2, 3 Esterhazy, Charles 1, 2 ethnic minorities 1, 2, 3 ethnocentrism 1 ethno-nationalism 1 ethnopluralism 1 EU.


pages: 535 words: 158,863

Superclass: The Global Power Elite and the World They Are Making by David Rothkopf

"World Economic Forum" Davos, airport security, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, asset allocation, Ayatollah Khomeini, bank run, barriers to entry, Bear Stearns, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, Bob Geldof, Branko Milanovic, Bretton Woods, BRICs, business cycle, carried interest, clean water, compensation consultant, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, David Brooks, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, fake news, financial innovation, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Gini coefficient, global village, high net worth, income inequality, industrial cluster, informal economy, Internet Archive, Jeff Bezos, jimmy wales, John Elkington, joint-stock company, knowledge economy, Larry Ellison, liberal capitalism, Live Aid, Long Term Capital Management, Mahatma Gandhi, Mark Zuckerberg, market fundamentalism, Marshall McLuhan, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, means of production, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Nelson Mandela, old-boy network, open borders, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, price mechanism, proprietary trading, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, Skype, special economic zone, Steve Jobs, Thorstein Veblen, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trickle-down economics, upwardly mobile, vertical integration, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, William Langewiesche

Yet, even acknowledging that the elites of today are different from those studied by Mills, several of the central questions that he raised and that bedeviled his times remain. Despite assertions to the contrary that emerged in the wake of the end of the cold war, we have not resolved the central debates about how to order our societies. We have not reached, as Francis Fukuyama put it, “the End of History”—an ideological consensus that the liberal Western view of government and economic life is the best way to order society. Nowhere is this clearer than with the issue that provoked the split between mainstream capitalism and Marxism—that of the just distribution of wealth. Contentious sessions at Davos in 2007 turned on issues like executive pay and whether it is fair that the average American CEO makes 350 to 400 times what his or her average employee makes.


pages: 582 words: 160,693

The Sovereign Individual: How to Survive and Thrive During the Collapse of the Welfare State by James Dale Davidson, William Rees-Mogg

affirmative action, agricultural Revolution, Alan Greenspan, Alvin Toffler, bank run, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, borderless world, British Empire, California gold rush, classic study, clean water, colonial rule, Columbine, compound rate of return, creative destruction, Danny Hillis, debt deflation, ending welfare as we know it, epigenetics, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, feminist movement, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, George Gilder, Hernando de Soto, illegal immigration, income inequality, independent contractor, informal economy, information retrieval, Isaac Newton, John Perry Barlow, Kevin Kelly, market clearing, Martin Wolf, Menlo Park, money: store of value / unit of account / medium of exchange, new economy, New Urbanism, Norman Macrae, offshore financial centre, Parkinson's law, pattern recognition, phenotype, price mechanism, profit maximization, rent-seeking, reserve currency, road to serfdom, Ronald Coase, Sam Peltzman, school vouchers, seigniorage, Silicon Valley, spice trade, statistical model, telepresence, The Nature of the Firm, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas L Friedman, Thomas Malthus, trade route, transaction costs, Turing machine, union organizing, very high income, Vilfredo Pareto

The Great Unanswered Question This brings us to one of the great unanswered puzzles of modern history: why the Cold War that came at the conclusion of the Great Power system pitted as its final contenders Communist dictatorships against welfare-state democracies. This issue has been so little examined that it actually seemed plausible to many when a State Department analyst, Francis Fukuyama, proclaimed "the end of history" after the Berlin Wall fell. The enthusiastic audience his work elicited took too much for granted. Apparently neither the author nor many others had bothered to ask a fundamental question: What common characteristics of state socialism and welfare-state democracies led them to be the final contenders for world domination?


pages: 482 words: 149,351

The Finance Curse: How Global Finance Is Making Us All Poorer by Nicholas Shaxson

"Friedman doctrine" OR "shareholder theory", "World Economic Forum" Davos, activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, Airbnb, airline deregulation, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, bank run, banking crisis, Basel III, Bear Stearns, benefit corporation, Bernie Madoff, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Blythe Masters, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business climate, business cycle, capital controls, carried interest, Cass Sunstein, Celtic Tiger, central bank independence, centre right, Clayton Christensen, cloud computing, corporate governance, corporate raider, creative destruction, Credit Default Swap, cross-subsidies, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, demographic dividend, Deng Xiaoping, desegregation, Donald Trump, Etonian, export processing zone, failed state, fake news, falling living standards, family office, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, forensic accounting, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, gig economy, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, global supply chain, Global Witness, high net worth, Ida Tarbell, income inequality, index fund, invisible hand, Jeff Bezos, junk bonds, Kickstarter, land value tax, late capitalism, light touch regulation, London Whale, Long Term Capital Management, low skilled workers, manufacturing employment, Mark Zuckerberg, Martin Wolf, megaproject, Michael Milken, Money creation, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, new economy, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, old-boy network, out of africa, Paul Samuelson, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, price mechanism, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, pushing on a string, race to the bottom, regulatory arbitrage, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Robert Bork, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, seminal paper, shareholder value, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Skype, smart grid, Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits, South Sea Bubble, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, Steve Ballmer, Steve Jobs, stock buybacks, Suez crisis 1956, The Chicago School, Thorstein Veblen, too big to fail, Tragedy of the Commons, transfer pricing, two and twenty, vertical integration, Wayback Machine, wealth creators, white picket fence, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

There was Australia’s blokeish Bob Hawke, who could have given Juncker a run for his money: Hawke once held the world speed record for drinking a yard of ale. There was Italy’s Romano Prodi, Sweden’s Göran Persson, Dutch prime minister Wim Kok and Germany’s Gerhard Schröder with his project for Die Neue Mitte—the New Middle. The political philosopher Francis Fukuyama had famously summed up the changes in 1989, as the movement was gathering steam, with the declaration that the victory of market capitalism was ‘the end of history as such: the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalisation of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’. For the left, the Third Way was the only way. This was the spirit of the age in 1997 when Britain, parched by eighteen hard years of Conservative rule, was offered the chance to elect a rock-star politician at the head of a renewed Labour Party.


pages: 475 words: 149,310

Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire by Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri

"World Economic Forum" Davos, affirmative action, air traffic controllers' union, Berlin Wall, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, classic study, conceptual framework, continuation of politics by other means, David Graeber, Defenestration of Prague, deskilling, disinformation, emotional labour, Fall of the Berlin Wall, feminist movement, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, global village, Great Leap Forward, Howard Rheingold, Howard Zinn, illegal immigration, Joseph Schumpeter, land reform, land tenure, late capitalism, liberation theology, means of production, military-industrial complex, Naomi Klein, new economy, Paul Samuelson, Pier Paolo Pasolini, post-Fordism, post-work, private military company, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, reserve currency, Richard Stallman, Slavoj Žižek, the Cathedral and the Bazaar, The Chicago School, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Thomas Malthus, Thorstein Veblen, Tobin tax, transaction costs, union organizing, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus

Patrick Camiller (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000). 3 See Joseph Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); and Robert Harvey, Global Disorder: America and the Threat of World Conflict (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2003). 4 Two influential examples that link capitalist democracy and U.S. hegemony are Thomas Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Anchor Books, 2000); and Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992). 5 See the National Security Strategy document released by the White House in September 2002. One of the most widely discussed arguments for unilateral U.S. power is Robert Kagan, Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (New York: Knopf, 2003). 6 Michael Hirsh, At War with Ourselves: Why America Is Squandering Its Chance to Build a Better World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 254.


pages: 543 words: 147,357

Them And Us: Politics, Greed And Inequality - Why We Need A Fair Society by Will Hutton

Abraham Maslow, Alan Greenspan, Andrei Shleifer, asset-backed security, bank run, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, behavioural economics, Benoit Mandelbrot, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Blythe Masters, Boris Johnson, bread and circuses, Bretton Woods, business cycle, capital controls, carbon footprint, Carmen Reinhart, Cass Sunstein, centre right, choice architecture, cloud computing, collective bargaining, conceptual framework, Corn Laws, Cornelius Vanderbilt, corporate governance, creative destruction, credit crunch, Credit Default Swap, debt deflation, decarbonisation, Deng Xiaoping, discovery of DNA, discovery of the americas, discrete time, disinformation, diversification, double helix, Edward Glaeser, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial innovation, financial intermediation, first-past-the-post, floating exchange rates, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frank Levy and Richard Murnane: The New Division of Labor, full employment, general purpose technology, George Akerlof, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, global supply chain, Growth in a Time of Debt, Hyman Minsky, I think there is a world market for maybe five computers, income inequality, inflation targeting, interest rate swap, invisible hand, Isaac Newton, James Dyson, James Watt: steam engine, Japanese asset price bubble, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, knowledge economy, knowledge worker, labour market flexibility, language acquisition, Large Hadron Collider, liberal capitalism, light touch regulation, Long Term Capital Management, long term incentive plan, Louis Pasteur, low cost airline, low interest rates, low-wage service sector, mandelbrot fractal, margin call, market fundamentalism, Martin Wolf, mass immigration, means of production, meritocracy, Mikhail Gorbachev, millennium bug, Money creation, money market fund, moral hazard, moral panic, mortgage debt, Myron Scholes, Neil Kinnock, new economy, Northern Rock, offshore financial centre, open economy, plutocrats, power law, price discrimination, private sector deleveraging, proprietary trading, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, railway mania, random walk, rent-seeking, reserve currency, Richard Thaler, Right to Buy, rising living standards, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, Rory Sutherland, Satyajit Das, Savings and loan crisis, shareholder value, short selling, Silicon Valley, Skype, South Sea Bubble, Steve Jobs, systems thinking, tail risk, The Market for Lemons, the market place, The Myth of the Rational Market, the payments system, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, three-masted sailing ship, too big to fail, unpaid internship, value at risk, Vilfredo Pareto, Washington Consensus, wealth creators, work culture , working poor, world market for maybe five computers, zero-sum game, éminence grise

In November Bill Clinton strode to victory in the American presidential election by promising to combine Republican toughness on welfare reform and rigour on tackling the budget deficit with Democratic promises on expanding healthcare entitlements and improving training. Intervention in the economy was determinedly out. The world had decided that markets, free enterprise and globalisation ruled. Francis Fukuyama captured the zeitgeist with his book The End of History and the Last Man, declaring that the ideological pitched battles that had punctuated world history were over because liberal democracy and capitalism had emphatically won and their efficiency could not now be contested. There was only one future. For Labour politicians confronting the prospect of another five years in opposition, bitter truths had to be learned.


Beyond the Wall: East Germany, 1949-1990 by Katja Hoyer

anti-communist, Berlin Wall, colonial rule, cuban missile crisis, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial independence, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, full employment, land reform, mass immigration, mass incarceration, Mikhail Gorbachev, new economy, open borders, Prenzlauer Berg, remote working, restrictive zoning, rising living standards, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, union organizing, work culture

For many Germans, East and West, the division of their country, which had seemed a fact of life during the Cold War, now looked like an unnatural state of affairs, a product of the Second World War and perhaps a punishment for it. By 1990, had Germany not done enough to overcome this dark chapter of its past? Did it not deserve a fresh start without constant reminders of it? Francis Fukuyama’s framing of the end of the Cold War as ‘the end of history’ seemed particularly apt for Germany. The nation wanted, indeed needed to see reunification as a happy ending to its tumultuous twentieth century. Acknowledging the continuing impact of Germany’s decades of division as anything other than distant history destroys this comforting illusion.

They might be able to chip away at Germany’s obsession with Vergangenheitsbewältigung, the process of ‘overcoming’ its own history. This concept has too often prevented the country from accepting continuities where it only wants to see clean breaks. It has made it tempting to see 1990 as a watershed moment that erased the GDR from the national narrative for good. Yet reunification is no more the end of history than the unification was in 1871. German unity cannot be ‘achieved’ in a single event. Rather the East German approach of the Wende as the beginning of a dynamic process seems more constructive. It allows a fluid, open and changeable interpretation of a country that no longer exists, that is no longer an enemy to be overcome.

., 412 Calgary Winter Olympics (1988), 378–9 Carl Zeiss Jena (company), 194 Carlsohn, Hans, 216–17 Catholic Church, 76, 100, 112, 135, 278, 287, 289, 347, 348 Ceaus‚escu Nicolae, 352 Central Committee of SED, 120, 124, 127, 201, 237, 277, 290, 316, 335, 339, 409; attempts to rein-in Stasi (early-1960s), 219–20; entire membership resigns (3 December 1989), 410; and fall of Ulbricht, 246–51; headquarters of in East Berlin, 102, 246; Honecker’s ‘Beat Ban,’ 212–13; Mielke’s rise in, 107; and opening of the Wall (9 November 1989), 402; place within SED structure, 84, 88; political enemies of Honecker, 353; power struggle after June uprising (1953), 139–41; Secretariat of, 84, 88, 140, 211, 212; and Ulbricht’s Westpolitik, 243 Centrum (shopping centre chain), 256–7 Chávez, Hugo, 137 Chemnitz, 270, 386 Chernenko, Konstantin, 351–2, 353, 355–6, 357 Chernobyl nuclear disaster (April 1986), 384 Cherokee Nation, 373–4 Chile, 265 Christian Democratic Union (CDU), 59, 63, 81, 85, 390, 391, 413; and foundation of GDR, 74; in GrandCoalition (1989-90), 414; and ideological purges of early 1950s, 87–91; youth organization in FRG, 260 Churchill, Winston, 35 City (rock band), 268 civil/human rights: growing protests in late-1980s, 389, 390; Helsinki Accords (August 1975), 291–2, 386; human rights groups, 386, 389; illusion of in GDR, 85, 109; and ‘New Course’ (9 June 1953), 132; and public hopes for peace/security/food in 1950s, 109–10; and Schalck–Strauß ‘channel,’ 343–4 Clausewitz, Carl von, 350 ‘Clausewitz – Life of a Prussian General’ (film), 350 Claussen, Peter, 372–4 coffee: ‘coffee agreement’ with Mengistu, 299–300; coffee crisis (1977), 293–6; ‘Erichs Krönung’ (Erich’s brew), 295, 300; GDR’s production project in Vietnam, 296–8, 305; production in African nations, 298–300; supply of as huge and costly issue, 294, 295–6, 299–300 Cold War: Berlin as focal point of, 75, 125, 171–86, 207–8; Berlin Blockade (1948-9), 72, 73, 74–5; Fukuyama’s end of history claim, 3–4; heated tensions of the early 1980s, 342–3; Hungarian Uprising ends ‘thaw,’ 151; June uprising stoked by West, 129, 133, 141–2; Khrushchev’s Berlin demilitarization demands, 152–3, 171–2; Korean War (1950-3), 119; McCarthyism, 119; simplistic images of the Other, 7; ‘thaw’ after Khrushchev’s takeover, 149–50; unfolds on the world stage (1947-8), 72, 73; West sees victory as proving alternative models wrong, 5; Western intelligence agencies, 139, 141–2, 273–4 Communist International (Comintern), 12, 18, 22–3, 28, 29, 37, 48, 106, 137 consumer goods: car ownership, 197–8, 280, 325, 365; Intershops, 322–3, 327, 338; production of, 229, 280, 324–5, 334, 336–7, 365–6; refrigerators, 229, 280, 324–5, 365; subsidized branded American jeans, 256–9, 279, 327; telephones, 229; television ownership, 226, 280, 324–5, 337, 365; washing machines, 69, 229, 280, 324–5, 365 Crimean Peninsula, 328 cruise liners, 186–9, 224, 231 Cuba, 188, 300–3, 304, 319 Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), 175, 188 Czechoslovakia, 89, 215, 221, 233, 242 Dachau concentration camp, 64 Damerius, Helmut, 25 Danzig (now Gdańsk), 367 Davis, Angela, 260–1 DEFA (state-owned film production company), 128, 213, 257, 270 defence, national: ‘Defence Education Camps,’ 312–13, 314; dense network of sirens, 318; militarization of society after June 1953 events, 142–7; militarization of society (from late 1970s), 306–16, 317–19 Democracy Now, 411 Democratic Awakening, 413 ‘democratic centralism,’ doctrine of, 91–2 Democratic Farmers’ Party (DBD), 81, 390 Demuth, Renate, 43–4, 45, 323 denazification, 35, 58, 107–8; as foundational dogma of GDR, 36, 117–18 Dessau, 304 Deubel, Klaus, 334–5 Diener, Alfred, 135 Dietrich, Wolfgang, 339–40 Dimitrov, Georgi, 29, 37, 48, 49, 106, 137 Doherr, Annemarie, 171, 172 Döllnsee, Brandenburg, 209–10 Drasdo, Herbert, 217 Drasdo, Ursula, 217 Dresden, 50–1, 154–5, 236–7, 240, 334, 335, 345, 399, 409, 412 Druzhba (Russian gas pipeline), 360–5 Druzhba (Russian oil pipeline), 281, 330 Dubček, Alexander, 215 Duroplast, 198 Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 157–8, 216 East Berlin: 10th World Festival of Youth and Students (1973), 259–63, 271; and 17 June uprising (1953), 133–4, 150; Bebelplatz, 78; Central Committee headquarters, 246; events of October/November 1989, 393–4, 399, 401–4; FDJ’s march on West Berlin (August 1951), 93–6; Fernsehturm, Berlin Television Tower, 5–6, 225–6, 393–4; Friedrichsfelde Central Cemetery, 159, 263; Göring’s former Air Ministry, 77–8, 132; as much smaller than West Berlin, 76; Neue Wache (New Guard), 350; open sector borders, 125, 130, 171–2, 207–8, 217; Pankow district, 163; Stalinallee renamed Karl-Marx-Allee, 150, 225; Stasi’s Ruschestraße headquarters, 216, 217; State Council Building, 234–5, 237, 262, 263; strike at Stalinallee (June 1953), 129, 130, 132–3, 150; Unter den Linden boulevard, 78; Werner-Seelenbinderhalle, 86; Zionskirche, 388–9 Eastern Bloc countries: and Willy Brandt, 233–4, 242–3; Brezhnev Doctrine, 215; and Brezhnev’s conservatism, 214; deep financial problems (1981), 338; dependence on Soviet oil, 330; directive to after death of Stalin, 136; holiday opportunities in, 190; Honecker returns GDR economy to, 254–5, 274; Hungarian Uprising (1956), 16, 151, 163, 217, 313; impact of Gorbachev’s reforms, 398; Prague Spring (1968), 215, 233; show trials in, 89; suppression of Prague Spring (1968), 215, 233; Ulbricht as dismissive of, 242 Eberlein, Werner, 244, 329 Eberswalde, Brandenburg, 300, 301–3 Edition Leipzig (publisher), 350 education: compass on GDR flag, 228; extended secondary school (EOS), 204, 227, 228, 256, 315, 316; higher education, 193, 203–5, 227, 228, 312, 314, 315–16, 317, 318, 320, 325; kindergartens, 138, 155, 236, 239; and militarization of society, 145, 312–16, 318; military service before university, 312–13, 315–16, 317; in Moscow, 23–5, 97, 106; obligatory military education, 312–16; physical education, 235–6, 237; politicized structures within, 240; polytechnic secondary schools (POS), 227, 314; reforms (1965), 226–7; ‘Social Science’ unit at university, 126; and socialist ideology, 157, 160; spending on, 124, 138; technical colleges, 228; vocational training/apprenticeships, 111–12, 123, 155–6, 162, 183–4, 204–7, 227–8, 302, 325, 340, 369; in Weimar era, 105 Egerland, Helmut, 175 Egypt, 231–3 Ehmke, Horst, 273–4 Ehrenburg, Ilya, 42 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 141–2, 153 Eisenhüttenstadt (Ironworks City), 115, 150 Eisleben, 347, 348 Eisler, Gerhart, 74 electoral politics: doctrine of ‘democratic centralism,’ 91–2; fixed, allocated seat shares in GDR parliament, 81, 91, 91–2, 390–1; local elections (May 1989), 390–3; March 1990 election, 411, 412–13, 421; shift to multi-party democracy, 420–1; voting process, 92–3, 390–3; Western democracies today, 92 energy supplies: brown coal (lignite), 114–15, 282, 330; and dependency on USSR, 6, 115, 243, 281–2, 306, 329–31, 332–3, 336, 338; Druzhba gas pipeline, 360–5; GDR’s desperate need of, 115, 169, 279, 306; self-sufficiency drive, 114–15 see also oil production/supplies Engelberg, Ernst, 350–1 environmental issues, 114–15, 282, 330, 384, 387–9, 391–2 Erhard, Ludwig, 168, 232 Erler, Peter, 10 Ernst Thälmann Pioneer Organization, 318 Ernsting, Stefan, 265 Erpenbeck, Fritz, 31–2, 47 Ethiopia, 299–300 European Defence Community, 119 Ewald, Manfred, 237–8 Falge, Andreas, 402–4 Falin, Valentin, 58–9 Faustmann, Regina, 111–12, 117, 135, 155–6, 200 Fechter, Peter, 178–81 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), 145; Adenauer’s election victories, 110; Angela Markel’s family move from, 338; Basic Treaty (1972), 261, 275; Brandt as first Social Democrat Chancellor, 90; constitution labelled as ‘provisional,’ 79, 276; cracking down on opponents, 85; declared the continuity state, 4, 417–22; demonstration in Essen (11 May 1952), 101–2; differences to GDR, 76–7, 114; economic aid from Western Allies, 76; exploits June uprising, 142; Federal Intelligence Service, 273–4; FIFA World Cup hosted by (1974), 266–8; food rationing ended (1950), 124; foreign contract workers, 303; as geopolitical pawn, 168; Germany Treaty (26 May 1952), 121; ‘Grand Coalition,’ 233; grants Israel arms purchase credit, 232; growth of trade volume with GDR (from 1984), 345–6; Hallstein Doctrine (1955), 156, 232–3, 275; idea of 1945 as ‘zero hour,’ 4, 38; and immigration from GDR, 130–1, 162; and inner-German thaw (1970s), 275–6, 322–5, 327, 331–2; limited social mobility in, 240, 316–17; as much larger than GDR, 76, 114; national debt in 1980s, 280; NATO membership, 108, 119, 145–6; new capital in Bonn, 76; ‘ohne mich’ (count me out) generation, 168; open welcome to former Nazis, 117; outright ban of the KPD (1956), 85; proclamation of constitution (23 May 1949), 73–4; rearmament/remilitarization (from 1952), 119, 122, 145–6; religious populations of, 76; reunification as a constitutional aim, 276; Schalck–Strauß ‘channel,’ 341–6, 357; selling of prisoners to, 277–9, 282, 387; Stalin Note (10 March 1952), 119–22, 141; Stasi spies in, 272–3, 274; streamed education system, 227; Welcome Money for East German arrivals, 405–6, 407; women’s employment rates in, 156 see also Adenauer, Konrad; Kohl, Helmut; West Berlin Feist, Margot, 77–8 Fensch, Eberhart, 266 Field, Noel, 89, 90, 103, 106–7 First World War, 14, 15, 104 Fleischer, Anneliese, 118–19, 122 Forck, Bishop Gottfried, 389 foreign labour programme, 300–6 Forum Handelsgesellschaft, 322, 323 France, 119, 121 Frank, Mario, 86 Frederick the Great, 350, 351 Frederick William I, King of Prussia, 351 Free German Trade Union Federation (FDGB), 59, 187, 189, 321 Free German Youth (FDJ), 77–9, 93–6, 112; and 10th World Festival of Youth and Students (1973), 260; banned in West Germany (June 1951), 101–2; and ‘Blue Jeans,’ 255–6, 257; and building of Berlin Wall, 176–7; ‘Convention of the German Youth’ (June 1950), 100–1; denounces Western culture, 160, 212; and Druzhba gas pipeline, 361, 362; Forum (student newspaper), 201; as ‘Hitler’s children,’ 100, 167–8; Honecker as founder, 99–100, 256; Jugendtourist (Youth Tourist), 367; Kuhfeld’s delegation to Berlin (1969), 224, 225–6; Angela Merkel’s role in, 288, 369; militarization of, 144, 145; stuffy image of, 160, 202; waning enthusiasm for, 200–1; Western members of, 101 Freie Welt (Free World) magazine, 264, 265 Freikorps, 14–15 Freudenberg, Ute, 269 Friedrich, Walter, 383 Fritschen, Brigitte, 44, 125, 162 Fritz Heckert (state-owned cruise ship), 186–8, 189, 224 fruits, exotic, 190, 218, 279 Fukuyama, Francis, 3–4 Fulbright Scholarship scheme, 373 Fulbrook, Mary, 93, 108, 205 Fürnberg, Louis, 82–3 Gaddafi, Muammar, 300 Gagarin, Yuri, 200 Geige, Hans die, 364 gender equality: childcare system, 155, 345, 413, 419–20; divorce rates, 207; female officers/recruits in NVA, 380–2; impact of reunification, 415, 419; as inherent feature of socialist ideology, 15, 155, 205; and kindergarten system, 138, 155, 236, 239; limited success of programme, 206–7; obstacles to, 205–7; pragmatic reasons for, 205; women in higher education, 203–5, 207; women in workplace, 111–12, 155–6, 319–20, 380, 419; women’s organizations, 92, 139–40; women’s rights activists, 16; women’s social lives, 156 Genex (mail order catalogue), 323–4, 361, 365, 366 Gerbilskaya, Luba, 21–2 German Communist Party (KPD): and creation of SED (May 1946), 62–4; exiles in Soviet Union, 9–10, 12–14, 15–20, 21–7, 28, 29–33, 36–8, 102; founding of (1918/19), 28, 29; Honecker joins Central Committee, 99; illegal information hubs in Nazi era, 78; members executed in Soviet Union, 19, 22, 102, 106; and Molotov– Ribbentrop Pact (August 1939), 26–7; Nazi suppression of, 11–12, 19, 21–2, 166; Neumann–Remmele group in Soviet Union, 102, 103; outright ban of in FDR (1956), 85; persecution during Stalin’s Terror, 9–10, 13–14, 17–21, 22–6, 31–3, 102; and post-war East Germany (pre-GDR), 35–8, 46–9; prisoners in Soviet gulags, 9–10, 13–14, 17, 25, 33; refounded under Pieck (June 1945), 58; Reichstag deputies (1933), 11–12; resentment towards the nobility, 65–6; Soviet deportations back to Germany, 20–1, 32; survivors of Stalin’s purges, 28, 29, 31–3, 36–8, 46–7, 87; in Weimar era, 14–15, 64, 105–6; in West Germany, 102 German Democratic Republic (GDR): 1950s as decade of missed chances, 167–9; acceptance of conscientious objection, 176, 315; alcohol consumption in, 366; alienates creative artists over Biermann, 291, 292; anti-Soviet sentiment of German men, 146; appeal of a genuinely anti-fascist, socialist state in 1950s, 110–11, 167–8; border crossings of November 1989 period, 403–7; ceases to exist (midnight 3 October 1990), 415–16; closer relations with West (late-1980s), 372–7; consolidation/stabilization (late 1950s/early 1960s), 5, 152–6, 158; dams of change broken (October 1989), 397–406; differences to FRG, 76–7, 114; feeling of helplessness as country dismantled, 415, 418–19; feeling of stability in 1987 period, 365–7; few natural resources in, 114–15, 169, 192–3, 198–9, 258, 281–2, 333; foundation of (7 October 1949), 74, 76; as geopolitical pawn to Moscow, 141, 168, 331–2; German refugees from the east in, 76; historiography of Prussia, 349–51; ideological purges of early 1950s, 87–91, 108; Khrushchev’s continued demand for reparations, 161; lack of political reform in last years of, 382–4, 390–3, 397–9; leadership’s deep mindset of fear, 108, 147, 163–7, 168, 219, 293, 318–19, 388–9; life as dull/stuffy in 1980s, 325, 360–1, 362, 367, 369–71; life as fairly comfortable in 1980s, 261–2, 320–1, 325, 362, 367, 371, 394–5; loses right to write its own history, 4; and ‘Luther Year’ (1983), 346–9; Angela Merkel’s life in, 1, 2–3, 259, 288–9, 367–9, 422; as much smaller than FRG, 76, 114; national flag of, 121, 228; normalization of German history in, 346–51; as not a footnote in German history, 5, 7, 418–23; ‘ohne mich’ (count me out) generation, 168; optimism/hope of early 1970s, 259–64; Ore Mountains (Thuringia and Saxony), 115–16; political events after opening of borders, 408–14; political repression in late-1960s, 228–9, 240; progress during 1960s, 186–98, 199–208, 219–20, 224–8, 229–31, 240, 242, 244–5; public hopes for peace/security/food in 1950s, 109, 110; regime as frightened of its own people, 109, 163–7; religious populations of, 76, 85, 112, 135, 138, 278, 284–9, 292, 349; rich cultural scene in 1950s, 112; room for private withdrawal in, 288–9; serious opposition to Ulbricht’s reforms, 93; show trials in, 89; silence over Red Army rapes, 45–6; Soviet backing of in late 1950s, 153; sudden disintegration of, 2, 397–416; suffocating weight of original economic burden, 114–18, 123–4, 138, 168–9; Ulbricht’s Soviet-style reforms, 86–7, 91, 93; vast Soviet reparations extracted from, 115–17, 168; widening gulf between regime and people, 166–7; widespread discontent at economic situation (early 1950s), 127–30 see also Honecker, Erich; Ulbricht, Walter German Democratic Republic (GDR), economy: 1970s as high point in living standards, 324–5; Apel’s death (December 1965), 214; Bavarian loan (1983/4), 343–5, 357; begins to catch up with the West (1960s), 194–5, 208; collaboration with Japan, 336, 337–8; consequences of land reforms, 66, 124; currency issues, 72–3, 169, 277, 322–4; desperate need for credit in early-1980s, 340–5; East Germans as highly attuned to 1980s crisis, 339–40; economic crisis of 1980s, 334–7, 338–42; economic planning commission, 194; economic/financial crisis (early-1950s), 123–5, 127–30; few natural resources, 114–15, 169, 192–3, 198–9, 258, 281–2, 333; first five-year plan (1951), 123–5; five-year plan (1981), 335; food rationing finally ends (1959), 124, 156; foreign trade/export markets, 6, 156, 192–4, 232, 234, 243, 258–9, 277–81, 319, 342, 345, 350; and FRG’s Hallstein Doctrine (1955), 156, 232–3, 275; fruit and vegetable production, 117, 124; game of ‘catch-up,’ 111–18, 123–4, 168; government lies about 1980s crisis, 338–9; growth of trade volume with FRG (from 1984), 345–6; haphazard/absurd efficiency measures (1981), 335; highest living standards in communist world (1970s), 6, 324–5; ‘Honecker Account,’ 279, 281; Honecker returns economy to Soviet bloc, 254–5, 274; Honecker’s five-year plan (1971), 253–9; illusion of progress as post-1975 state policy, 281–2; impact of armed forces build-up, 124–5; impact of denazification, 118; impact of emigration on, 125, 130–1, 138, 153, 161–2, 169–70, 171; impact of Russian oil price rise (1975), 281–2, 306; inherent dependence on Soviet Union, 6, 280–1, 306, 329–31, 332–3, 336; loss of expertise/resources to USSR, 118; nationalization policies, 36, 70, 71, 153, 161, 169, 254; need for high-tech future in 1980s, 335–6; ‘New Course’ (9 June 1953), 132, 138; ‘New Economic System’ (NES, 1963)., 193–5, 198–9, 210, 214, 335; possession of foreign currencies legalized (1974), 322–4; rising living standards from late-1950s, 153, 158, 229–31; rising living standards in 1970s, 279–80, 320, 324–5; rising living standards in post-1953 period, 138–9; rising productivity in 1970s, 279–80; sale of Nazi era paraphernalia, 282; Schalck–Strauß ‘channel,’ 341–6, 357; seven-year plan (1959), 161; Soviet loan and food subsidies (1953), 139; Treuhand’s privatization of, 414–15, 418; Ulbricht’s sharp U-turn, 160–1; Ulbricht’s Westpolitik policy, 243–4, 274; Western creditors in 1970s, 279, 281; withdrawal of Western investments (1982), 338 see also consumer goods German Democratic Republic (GDR), emigration/escape from: Baltic Sea route (‘State Border North’), 385; brain drain as inevitable with open border, 169–70; brief lull in emigration figures (1958), 153, 162, 169; from cruise ships, 187; economic and social impact of, 125, 130–1, 138, 153, 161–2, 169–70, 171, 385–6; facilitated by Western intelligence agencies, 139, 153; impact of ‘New Course,’ 138; legal methods in 1980s, 369–70, 384–5; and Karl-Heinz Nitschke, 385–7; from open sector borders in Berlin, 125, 130–1, 171; record number of leave applications (1988/89), 389–90, 398; refuge in West German embassies (1989), 398; through Eastern bloc after Gorbachev’s reforms, 398; by writers/artists/actors, 160 see also Berlin Wall; border, inner-German German Democratic Republic (GDR), foreign policy/diplomacy: Basic Treaty (1972), 261, 275; and Brandt’s Ostpolitik, 233–4, 242–3, 274; closer relations with West (late-1980s), 382–3; ‘coffee agreement’ with Mengistu, 299–300; de facto break with Moscow (1978), 378, 383; foreign aid to socialist nations, 303–4, 305–6; foreign contract workers, 300–6; friendship with Arab nations, 231–3; and Honecker-Kohl relationship, 353–6, 357, 359–60; inner-German thaw (1970s), 275–6, 322–5, 327, 331–2; joins United Nations, 261; membership of United Nations (1972), 6, 261; recognition by foreign countries, 6, 231–3, 261–2; signs Helsinki Accords (August 1975), 291–2, 386; Transit Agreement (1971), 275 German Democratic Republic (GDR), governmental structure: constitution (1968), 228–9; designed for easy merging with West Germany, 79, 110; first constitution, 79–85, 80, 109; fixed, allocated seat shares in parliament, 81, 91, 91–2, 390–1; forced democratization of (from October 1989), 399–406; illusion of civil rights and basic freedoms, 85, 109; as initially bicameral, 81; initially designed as federal system, 79–81; interim governing arrangements after collapse of SED, 410, 411; Ministerrat (Council of Ministers), 82; People’s Chamber (Volkskammer), 77–8, 81, 82, 84–5, 91–3, 132, 408–10, 415; and pretense of democracy, 49, 54–5, 61–2, 81, 390–3; role of President abolished (1960), 81; Round Table, 411; Staatsrat (Council of State), 81–2 see also Central Committee of SED; politburo of the Central Committee German Democratic Republic (GDR), political protests/opposition: 17 June uprising (1953), 5, 128–9, 130, 133–6, 139–40, 141–2, 168, 200; coverage in the Western media, 133, 385, 386–7, 388–9, 392; against denied applications for permanent leave, 370, 385, 386–7, 388–9; deportations to FRG, 389; environmental groups, 384, 387–9; events of October/November 1989, 393–4, 399–406; growth of in late-1980s, 389; human rights groups, 386, 389; idea of collective action as powerful, 387–9; Krenz promises Wende (turning point), 401, 407–8; as largely absent in 1960s, 245; and local elections (May 1989), 390–3; New Forum proclamation, 398–9; Karl-Heinz Nitschke, 385–7; organized groups from mid-1970s, 370, 384–93; pacifist/peace organizations, 384, 387, 388–9; question of GDR’s future (November 1989 period), 411–12; Red Flags targeted, 133, 146; as regular in 1953 period, 131, 132–5; ‘Riesa Petition for the Full Accomplishment of Human Rights’ (1976), 386; Soviet crushing of 17 June uprising, 134–5, 141; strike at Stalinallee (June 1953), 129, 130, 132–3, 150; Ulbricht’s responses to 1953 uprising, 136, 138, 141; white circles, 387 German reunification (1990): day of (3 October 1990), 415–16; debates in GDR (from November 1989), 411–13; desire to see as happy ending, 3–4, 417; Deutsche Mark exchange rate issue, 413, 414; East Germans’ refusal to forget GDR, 421–2; East-West economic imbalance, 418–19; final treaty signed (31 August 1990), 415; FRG-GDR negotiations, 414, 415; impact on childcare system, 419–20; Kohl’s ten-point plan for (28 November 1989), 412; limited social mobility after, 240; many successes of, 1–2; and March 1990 election, 412–13; monetary union, 414; nostalgia for GDR as not desire to bring it back, 421–2; old fault lines as not disintegrating, 418–22; People’s Chamber formally votes for, 415; popular support for in GDR (1989-90), 411–13; and role of women, 415, 419; and shift to multi-party democracy, 420–1; ‘solidarity surcharge’ (1991), 418; Treuhand’s privatization of GDR economy, 414–15, 418; triggers wave of change for East Germans, 417–22; Two Plus Four negotiations, 415; Wende as beginning of a dynamic process, 423; ‘West German’ equated with ‘normal,’ 417, 420–2; writing of GDR out of national narrative, 3 German Social Union, 413 German Unity Day (3 October), 1–3, 415 Germany: arrival of Red Army at end of war, 39–46, 47, 63, 146; Deutsche Mark (DM) introduced (1948), 72–3, 74, 169; four zones of occupation, 35–6, 58, 67, 68–9, 70–1, 72, 74, 76, 114, 172–3; German prisoners of war on Eastern Front, 30, 51; ‘Gruppe Ulbricht’ arrives in (April/May 1945), 46–9; ‘magnet’ theory on reunification, 243; merging of US and British zones (1947), 72; move towards division (1948-9), 71–4; Parteiselbstschutz (paramilitary wing), 105–6; post-war influx of refugees from the east, 51–2, 59, 76; process of ‘overcoming’ its own history, 422–3; question over inevitability of division, 74–5; rapes committed by Red Army soldiers, 40, 42–3, 45–6, 48, 146; reunification issue in 1960s/70s, 233–4; Revolution (1918-19), 10, 78; Ruhr industrial heartlands, 69, 115; Second World War reparations, 35, 68–9, 76, 115–17, 129, 139; shortages in post-war period, 41, 48, 50, 51; Soviet desire for reunification, 86–7, 100–1, 108, 110, 119–21, 122, 131–2; Soviet Zone of Occupation, 32–4, 35–8, 46–9, 51, 53–7, 58–66, 68–73, 74–5, 76, 114, 143; unification (1871), 417; wartime ruin/devastation, 47, 50–1, 53, 55–6, 77, 112, 153–4, 156–7; Weimar era, 14–15, 63, 64, 68, 105–6, 144, 166, 197; Western sectors, 63, 70–1, 72–3, 76 see also Federal Republic of Germany (FRG); German reunification (1990); Nazi Germany and entries for German Democratic Republic (GDR) Gieseke, Jens, 274 Goebbels, Joseph, 28–9, 62 Good Bye Lenin!


pages: 568 words: 164,014

Dawn of the Code War: America's Battle Against Russia, China, and the Rising Global Cyber Threat by John P. Carlin, Garrett M. Graff

1960s counterculture, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, Aaron Swartz, air gap, Andy Carvin, Apple II, Bay Area Rapid Transit, bitcoin, Brian Krebs, business climate, cloud computing, cotton gin, cryptocurrency, data acquisition, Deng Xiaoping, disinformation, driverless car, drone strike, dual-use technology, eat what you kill, Edward Snowden, fake news, false flag, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Hacker Ethic, information security, Internet of things, James Dyson, Jeff Bezos, John Gilmore, John Markoff, John Perry Barlow, Ken Thompson, Kevin Roose, Laura Poitras, Mark Zuckerberg, Menlo Park, millennium bug, Minecraft, Mitch Kapor, moral hazard, Morris worm, multilevel marketing, Network effects, new economy, Oklahoma City bombing, out of africa, packet switching, peer-to-peer, peer-to-peer model, performance metric, RAND corporation, ransomware, Reflections on Trusting Trust, Richard Stallman, Robert Metcalfe, Ronald Reagan, Saturday Night Live, self-driving car, shareholder value, side project, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Skype, Snapchat, South China Sea, Steve Crocker, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, Steven Levy, Stewart Brand, Stuxnet, The Hackers Conference, Tim Cook: Apple, trickle-down economics, Wargames Reagan, Whole Earth Catalog, Whole Earth Review, WikiLeaks, Y2K, zero day, zero-sum game

Over two decades, I went from working on the evolution side of that fight from Freedom House in the mid-1990s, during an era of hope at the end of the Cold War, to watching from a front-row seat in government as the revolution side of the fight played out in Russia, as it retrenched from a fledgling democracy to a criminal autocratic state led by Vladimir Putin. And I devoted my energies, later, at the National Security Division to combatting Russia and three other countries with a very different set of values: Iran, North Korea, and China. We took that moment of hope in the 1990s for granted, as Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man made it appear that ideological struggles were over and democracy would reign supreme.* At the time, the rising digital world seemed to take freedom even one natural step further, allowing for a place that can be without rules and completely unfettered. The same year, 1996, that I worked at Freedom House, John Perry Barlow—a former lyricist for the Grateful Dead who been an early participant in the web—authored and posted online a “Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace,” writing, “Governments of the Industrial World, you weary giants of flesh and steel, I come from Cyberspace, the new home of Mind.

See Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting & Conformance Dokuchaev, Dmitry Aleksandrovich, 302 domain awareness, 151–152 Domain-based Message Authentication, Reporting & Conformance (DMARC), 396 Donilon, Tom, 242, 249 Draper, John, “Captain Crunch,” 79 DrDDoS, 280 Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), 157, 213, 215 Drummond, David, 184 DUBrute.exe malware, 27 DuPont, 256–258 Durkan, Jenny, 199, 200 Dyn, 391 Dyn Research, 340 Dyson, James, 131 economic espionage, 53, 129–130, 134, 146–147, 197–198, 209, 256–257, 263 Economic Espionage Act of 1996, 257 al-Ekhlas (Sincerity) (website), 6 election systems, 382, 386 Electronic Communications Privacy Act, 201 Electronic Frontier Foundation, 72 Emirnet, 102 eMoney, 118 The End of History and the Last Man (Fukuyama), 72 Enron Task Force, 187 EP-3 spy planes, 109–111, 166 Equifax hack, 32 espionage, 4; China approach to, 146; by civilian hackers, 165; corporate, 162–163; cyber, 178, 231–233. See also counterespionage; economic espionage Esquire magazine, 79 Estonia, 135, 282 Etchells, Paul, 162 Euronext, 223 Facebook, 41, 45, 56, 375 Factory Direct Machine Tools, 316 Al-Falih, Khalid, 221 Fanning, Shawn, 65 Fatal System Error (Menn), 119, 280 Fathi, Ahmad, 230 FBARs.


pages: 547 words: 172,226

Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty by Daron Acemoglu, James Robinson

Admiral Zheng, agricultural Revolution, Albert Einstein, Andrei Shleifer, Atahualpa, banking crisis, Bartolomé de las Casas, Berlin Wall, blood diamond, bread and circuses, BRICs, British Empire, central bank independence, clean water, collective bargaining, colonial rule, conceptual framework, Corn Laws, Cornelius Vanderbilt, creative destruction, crony capitalism, Deng Xiaoping, desegregation, discovery of the americas, en.wikipedia.org, European colonialism, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, financial independence, financial innovation, financial intermediation, flying shuttle, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, full employment, Great Leap Forward, household responsibility system, Ida Tarbell, income inequality, income per capita, indoor plumbing, invention of movable type, invisible hand, James Hargreaves, James Watt: steam engine, Jeff Bezos, joint-stock company, Joseph Schumpeter, Kickstarter, land reform, low interest rates, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, minimum wage unemployment, Mohammed Bouazizi, Paul Samuelson, price stability, profit motive, Robert Solow, Rosa Parks, Scramble for Africa, seminal paper, Simon Kuznets, spice trade, spinning jenny, Steve Ballmer, Steve Jobs, Suez canal 1869, trade liberalization, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, union organizing, upwardly mobile, W. E. B. Du Bois, Washington Consensus, working poor

—Niall Ferguson, author of The Ascent of Money “Acemoglu and Robinson—two of the world’s leading experts on development—reveal why it is not geography, disease, or culture that explain why some nations are rich and some poor, but rather a matter of institutions and politics. This highly accessible book provides welcome insight to specialists and general readers alike.” —Francis Fukuyama, author of The End of History and the Last Man and The Origins of Political Order “A brilliant and uplifting book—yet also a deeply disturbing wake-up call. Acemoglu and Robinson lay out a convincing theory of almost everything to do with economic development. Countries rise when they put in place the right pro-growth political institutions and they fail—often spectacularly—when those institutions ossify or fail to adapt.


pages: 566 words: 163,322

The Rise and Fall of Nations: Forces of Change in the Post-Crisis World by Ruchir Sharma

"World Economic Forum" Davos, Asian financial crisis, backtesting, bank run, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, BRICs, business climate, business cycle, business process, call centre, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Carmen Reinhart, central bank independence, centre right, colonial rule, commodity super cycle, corporate governance, creative destruction, crony capitalism, currency peg, dark matter, debt deflation, deglobalization, deindustrialization, demographic dividend, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Doha Development Round, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Glaeser, Elon Musk, eurozone crisis, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Freestyle chess, Gini coefficient, global macro, Goodhart's law, guns versus butter model, hiring and firing, hype cycle, income inequality, indoor plumbing, industrial robot, inflation targeting, Internet of things, Japanese asset price bubble, Jeff Bezos, job automation, John Markoff, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, Kenneth Rogoff, Kickstarter, knowledge economy, labor-force participation, Larry Ellison, lateral thinking, liberal capitalism, low interest rates, Malacca Straits, Mark Zuckerberg, market bubble, Mary Meeker, mass immigration, megacity, megaproject, Mexican peso crisis / tequila crisis, middle-income trap, military-industrial complex, mittelstand, moral hazard, New Economic Geography, North Sea oil, oil rush, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, open immigration, pattern recognition, Paul Samuelson, Peter Thiel, pets.com, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, price stability, Productivity paradox, purchasing power parity, quantitative easing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, random walk, rent-seeking, reserve currency, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, savings glut, secular stagnation, Shenzhen was a fishing village, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley startup, Simon Kuznets, smart cities, Snapchat, South China Sea, sovereign wealth fund, special economic zone, spectrum auction, Steve Jobs, tacit knowledge, tech billionaire, The Future of Employment, The Wisdom of Crowds, Thomas Malthus, total factor productivity, trade liberalization, trade route, tulip mania, Tyler Cowen: Great Stagnation, unorthodox policies, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce, work culture , working-age population

A Washington Post team identified the “middle-class rage” of societies that “are now demanding more.” A New York Times writer began his piece in an upscale restaurant in the Istanbul suburbs, where he saw a revolt of “the rising classes” and of the “educated haves” who had benefited most from the regimes they had come to reject. The Stanford political scientist Francis Fukuyama spotted a “middle-class revolution” of tech-savvy youths. These were rich stories, well told, but the growing middle class was not a harbinger of the coming protests. Yes, the middle class was growing in the protest-stricken nations, but it was growing in many other countries as well. Over the previous fifteen years, in twenty-one of the largest emerging nations, the middle-class population had expanded by an average of 18 percentage points as a share of the total population, to a bit more than half.3 The protests, however, had erupted in nations where the middle class had grown very fast, such as Russia (up 63 percentage points) and quite slowly, such as South Africa (up 5 percentage points).

New York Times, November 30, 2013. Fry, Richard, and Rakesh Kochhar. “America’s Wealth Gap between Middle-Income and Upper-Income Families Is Widest on Record,” Pew Research Center, December 17, 2014. Fukuyama, Francis. “The Middle Class Revolution.” Wall Street Journal, June 22, 2013. ——. “At the ‘End of History’ Still Stands Democracy.” Wall Street Journal, June 6, 2014. Garman, Christopher. “New Voices vs. Old Leaders: How the Middle Class Is Reshaping EM Politics.” Eurasia Group, July 2013. ——. “Emerging Markets Strategy.” Eurasia Group, November 2014. Global Emerging Markets Equity Team. “Tales from the Emerging World: The Myths of Middle-Class Revolution.”


pages: 526 words: 160,601

A Generation of Sociopaths: How the Baby Boomers Betrayed America by Bruce Cannon Gibney

1960s counterculture, 2013 Report for America's Infrastructure - American Society of Civil Engineers - 19 March 2013, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, Alan Greenspan, AlphaGo, American Society of Civil Engineers: Report Card, Bear Stearns, Bernie Madoff, Bernie Sanders, Black Lives Matter, bond market vigilante , book value, Boston Dynamics, Bretton Woods, business cycle, buy and hold, carbon footprint, carbon tax, Charles Lindbergh, classic study, cognitive dissonance, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collateralized debt obligation, corporate personhood, Corrections Corporation of America, currency manipulation / currency intervention, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, dark matter, DeepMind, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, Downton Abbey, Edward Snowden, Elon Musk, ending welfare as we know it, equal pay for equal work, failed state, financial deregulation, financial engineering, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of work, gender pay gap, gig economy, Glass-Steagall Act, Haight Ashbury, Higgs boson, high-speed rail, Home mortgage interest deduction, Hyperloop, illegal immigration, impulse control, income inequality, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invisible hand, James Carville said: "I would like to be reincarnated as the bond market. You can intimidate everybody.", Jane Jacobs, junk bonds, Kitchen Debate, labor-force participation, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, Lyft, Mark Zuckerberg, market bubble, mass immigration, mass incarceration, McMansion, medical bankruptcy, Menlo Park, Michael Milken, military-industrial complex, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, mortgage debt, mortgage tax deduction, Neil Armstrong, neoliberal agenda, Network effects, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, obamacare, offshore financial centre, oil shock, operation paperclip, plutocrats, Ponzi scheme, price stability, prosperity theology / prosperity gospel / gospel of success, quantitative easing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, RAND corporation, rent control, ride hailing / ride sharing, risk tolerance, Robert Shiller, Ronald Reagan, Rubik’s Cube, Savings and loan crisis, school choice, secular stagnation, self-driving car, shareholder value, short selling, side project, Silicon Valley, smart grid, Snapchat, source of truth, stem cell, Steve Jobs, Stewart Brand, stock buybacks, survivorship bias, TaskRabbit, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Tim Cook: Apple, too big to fail, War on Poverty, warehouse robotics, We are all Keynesians now, white picket fence, Whole Earth Catalog, women in the workforce, Y2K, Yom Kippur War, zero-sum game

The bipartisan, congressionally chartered National Defense Panel “want[ed] to make two points crystal clear.”51 First, recent budget cuts “precipitated an immediate readiness crisis.”52 Second, (and much more gloomily than the DoD), the Obama administration’s proposals for partial funding restoration “are nowhere near enough to remedy the damage which the Department has suffered and enable it to carry out its missions at an acceptable level of risk.”53 The “capabilities and capacities” called for in the nation’s master defense document, the Quadrennial Defense Review, “clearly exceed budget resources made available to the Department”; in nonbureaucratese, the military simply doesn’t have the money to do its job.54 Therefore, it can come as no surprise that the Secretary of Defense worried that the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps would not achieve readiness goals until 2020 and the Air Force not until 2023, or that the head of the Marine Corps informed Congress that half of its home-stationed units experienced unacceptable shortfalls that could “result in a delayed response and/or the unnecessary loss of… lives.”55 Various think tanks question the military’s capacities, with the (admittedly hawkish) Heritage Foundation rating the military overall as “marginal,” and the Army scoring no better than “weak,” not an inspiring adjective in any context, especially the martial; other institutions offer chirpier gloss, but generally fret over the military’s present size and posture.56 The Air Force operates the oldest and smallest fleet in recent history, the Navy has shrunk, and overall manpower has been in decline since the Boomers took control of Congress. It’s revealing that the posture of the armed forces has actually weakened since the period 1990–1995, a period of unusual peace. While optimists invoked (part of) Francis Fukuyama’send of history” to contend that all nations would transition to liberal, Western, and presumably nonhostile democracies, 1991’s hopes of global harmony proved no more realistic than Thomas More’s Utopia of 1516 or any of the many fantasies that followed.* The world remains dangerous and America militant.


pages: 559 words: 164,795

Berlin: Life and Death in the City at the Center of the World by Sinclair McKay

Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, Bletchley Park, dark matter, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Fellow of the Royal Society, fixed income, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, German hyperinflation, haute couture, In Cold Blood by Truman Capote, Isaac Newton, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Mikhail Gorbachev, plutocrats, Prenzlauer Berg, uranium enrichment

That night of 9 November 1989 saw illimitable tears as East and West Berliners conjoined fully and freely for the first time since 1961; for those in the East, the first true freedom that they had known since 1933, and the advent of the Nazis. This final Berlin Revolution of the twentieth century was the truly definitive one; the oppressive wall was danced upon before being hacked at by countless euphoric souvenir hunters. This was not, to use the overworn phrase of historian Francis Fukuyama, the End of History (and nor did he ever mean it quite like that); but for Berlin, it was a resolution. 1. The deathly winter of 1918–19 – defeat and disease – brought near civil war in Berlin. As communists and government-backed Freikorps fought, other civilians sought to restore normal lives. 2.


pages: 1,351 words: 385,579

The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined by Steven Pinker

1960s counterculture, affirmative action, Alan Turing: On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem, Albert Einstein, availability heuristic, behavioural economics, Berlin Wall, Boeing 747, Bonfire of the Vanities, book value, bread and circuses, British Empire, Broken windows theory, business cycle, California gold rush, Cass Sunstein, citation needed, classic study, clean water, cognitive dissonance, colonial rule, Columbine, computer age, Computing Machinery and Intelligence, conceptual framework, confounding variable, correlation coefficient, correlation does not imply causation, crack epidemic, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, David Brooks, delayed gratification, demographic transition, desegregation, Doomsday Clock, Douglas Hofstadter, Dr. Strangelove, Edward Glaeser, en.wikipedia.org, European colonialism, experimental subject, facts on the ground, failed state, first-past-the-post, Flynn Effect, food miles, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, fudge factor, full employment, Garrett Hardin, George Santayana, ghettoisation, Gini coefficient, global village, Golden arches theory, Great Leap Forward, Henri Poincaré, Herbert Marcuse, Herman Kahn, high-speed rail, Hobbesian trap, humanitarian revolution, impulse control, income inequality, informal economy, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of the printing press, Isaac Newton, lake wobegon effect, libertarian paternalism, long peace, longitudinal study, loss aversion, Marshall McLuhan, mass incarceration, McMansion, means of production, mental accounting, meta-analysis, Mikhail Gorbachev, mirror neurons, moral panic, mutually assured destruction, Nelson Mandela, nuclear taboo, Oklahoma City bombing, open economy, Peace of Westphalia, Peter Singer: altruism, power law, QWERTY keyboard, race to the bottom, Ralph Waldo Emerson, random walk, Republic of Letters, Richard Thaler, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Saturday Night Live, security theater, Skinner box, Skype, Slavoj Žižek, South China Sea, Stanford marshmallow experiment, Stanford prison experiment, statistical model, stem cell, Steven Levy, Steven Pinker, sunk-cost fallacy, technological determinism, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, the long tail, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, theory of mind, Timothy McVeigh, Tragedy of the Commons, transatlantic slave trade, trolley problem, Turing machine, twin studies, ultimatum game, uranium enrichment, Vilfredo Pareto, Walter Mischel, WarGames: Global Thermonuclear War, WikiLeaks, women in the workforce, zero-sum game

The story can be told in titles and dates: Werner Levi’s The Coming End of War (1981), John Gaddis’s “The Long Peace: Elements of Stability in the Postwar International System” (1986), Kalevi Holsti’s “The Horsemen of the Apocalypse: At the Gate, Detoured, or Retreating?” (1986), Evan Luard’s The Blunted Sword: The Erosion of Military Power in Modern World Politics (1988), John Mueller’s Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (1989), Francis Fukuyama’s “The End of History?” (1989), James Lee Ray’s “The Abolition of Slavery and the End of International War” (1989), and Carl Kaysen’s “Is War Obsolete?” (1990).154 In 1988 the political scientist Robert Jervis captured the phenomenon they were all noticing: The most striking characteristic of the postwar period is just that—it can be called “postwar” because the major powers have not fought each other since 1945.

Two highly publicized rallies in the nation’s capital, one organized by black men, one by white, affirmed the obligation of men to support their children: Louis Farrakhan’s Million Man March, and a march by the Promise Keepers, a conservative Christian movement. Though both movements had unsavory streaks of ethnocentrism, sexism, and religious fundamentalism, their historical significance lay in the larger recivilizing process they exemplified. In The Great Disruption, the political scientist Francis Fukuyama notes that as rates of violence went down in the 1990s, so did most other indicators of social pathology, such as divorce, welfare dependency, teenage pregnancy, dropping out of school, sexually transmitted disease, and teenage auto and gun accidents.181 The recivilizing process of the past two decades is not just a resumption of the currents that have swept the West since the Middle Ages.

During its heyday, violence by Marxist regimes was justified with the saying “You can’t make an omelet without breaking eggs.”172 The historian Richard Pipes summarized history’s verdict: “Aside from the fact that human beings are not eggs, the trouble is that no omelet has emerged from the slaughter.”173 Valentino concludes that “it may be premature to celebrate ‘the end of history,’ but if no similarly radical ideas gain the widespread applicability and acceptance of communism, humanity may be able to look forward to considerably less mass killing in the coming century than it experienced in the last.”174 On top of that singularly destructive ideology were the catastrophic decisions of a few men who took the stage at particular moments in the 20th century.


pages: 708 words: 176,708

The WikiLeaks Files: The World According to US Empire by Wikileaks

affirmative action, anti-communist, banking crisis, battle of ideas, Boycotts of Israel, Bretton Woods, British Empire, capital controls, central bank independence, Chelsea Manning, colonial exploitation, colonial rule, corporate social responsibility, credit crunch, cuban missile crisis, Deng Xiaoping, drone strike, Edward Snowden, energy security, energy transition, European colonialism, eurozone crisis, experimental subject, F. W. de Klerk, facts on the ground, failed state, financial innovation, Food sovereignty, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, future of journalism, high net worth, invisible hand, Julian Assange, Kickstarter, liberal world order, Mikhail Gorbachev, millennium bug, Mohammed Bouazizi, Monroe Doctrine, Nelson Mandela, no-fly zone, Northern Rock, nuclear ambiguity, Philip Mirowski, post-war consensus, RAND corporation, Ronald Reagan, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, South China Sea, statistical model, Strategic Defense Initiative, structural adjustment programs, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, UNCLOS, UNCLOS, uranium enrichment, vertical integration, Washington Consensus, WikiLeaks, zero-sum game, éminence grise

Meanwhile, post-Mao Beijing, under Deng Xiaoping, emerged as a major Western strategic partner, further isolating Moscow and post-unification Hanoi.19 The decisive collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 sparked a triumphalist celebration of American prowess, with conservative thinkers such as Francis Fukuyama prematurely declaring “The End of History.” For Fukuyama, the apparent defeat of communism supposedly underscored the emergence of democratic capitalism as the ideological endpoint of human history, with US hegemony defining and underpinning the architecture of the post–Cold War global order.20 America’s wholesale embrace of its newfound role as the sole global superpower was starkly evident in key strategic documents such as the infamous 1992 Defence Planning Guidance, under the administration of George H.

,” p. 16. 17Benedict Anderson, “From Miracle to Crash,” London Review of Books, April 16, 1998. 18Walden Bello, Dilemmas of Domination: The Unmaking of the American Empire (New York: Holt, 2006); Benedict Anderson, “Exit Suharto: Obituary for a Mediocre Tyrant,” New Left Review II/50 (March 2008). 19Henry Kissinger, On China (New York: Penguin, 2011). 20Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” National Interest, Summer 1989. 21“Excerpts From Pentagon’s Plan: ‘Prevent the Re-Emergence of a New Rival,’”New York Times, March 8, 1992. 22Bello, Dilemmas of Domination. 23Eric Schmitt, “US-Philippine Command May Signal War’s Next Phase,” New York Times, January 16, 2002. 24Richard Javad Heydarian, “The China-Philippines-US Triangle,” Foreign Policy in Focus, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, DC, December 16, 2010. 25Ibid; Achariya and Arabinda Achariya, “The Myth of the Second Front: Localizing the ‘War on Terror’ in Southeast Asia,” Washington Quarterly, Fall 2007. 26It was common knowledge, reflected in Washington’s statements in Obama’s trips to these countries, that the US has been irked by the supposedly protectionist policies of these countries, which had affected American companies’ ability to increase their exports. 27Richard Javad Heydarian, “Obama’s Free Trade Strategy Falters in Asia,” Inter Press Service, June 14, 2014, at ipsnews.net; “Japan, America and the Trans-Pacific Partnership: Stalemate,” The Economist, October 4, 2014. 28Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power Is Transforming the World (New York: Yale University Press, 2007). 29Amado Mendoza and Richard Javad Heydarian, “Member Country: Philippines,” ASEAN-CHINA Free Trade Area: Challenges, Opportunities, and the Road Ahead, Monograph No. 22, National University of Singapore, 2012. 30Heydarian, “China-Philippines-US Triangle.” 31Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive. 32Kurt Campbell and Ely Ratner, “Far Eastern Promises,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2014. 33Kissinger, On China. 34Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive. 35American popularity in the Philippines is in fact consistently reflected in surveys by Gallup and Pew.


pages: 593 words: 183,240

An Economic History of the Twentieth Century by J. Bradford Delong

affirmative action, Alan Greenspan, Andrei Shleifer, ASML, asset-backed security, Ayatollah Khomeini, banking crisis, Bear Stearns, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, buy and hold, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, Carmen Reinhart, centre right, collapse of Lehman Brothers, collective bargaining, colonial rule, coronavirus, cotton gin, COVID-19, creative destruction, crowdsourcing, cryptocurrency, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, en.wikipedia.org, ending welfare as we know it, endogenous growth, Fairchild Semiconductor, fake news, financial deregulation, financial engineering, financial repression, flying shuttle, Ford Model T, Ford paid five dollars a day, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, general purpose technology, George Gilder, German hyperinflation, global value chain, Great Leap Forward, Gunnar Myrdal, Haber-Bosch Process, Hans Rosling, hedonic treadmill, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, housing crisis, Hyman Minsky, income inequality, income per capita, industrial research laboratory, interchangeable parts, Internet Archive, invention of agriculture, invention of the steam engine, It's morning again in America, John Maynard Keynes: Economic Possibilities for our Grandchildren, John Maynard Keynes: technological unemployment, Joseph Schumpeter, Kenneth Rogoff, labor-force participation, land reform, late capitalism, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, liquidity trap, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, manufacturing employment, market bubble, means of production, megacity, Menlo Park, Mikhail Gorbachev, mortgage debt, mutually assured destruction, Neal Stephenson, occupational segregation, oil shock, open borders, open economy, Paul Samuelson, Pearl River Delta, Phillips curve, plutocrats, price stability, Productivity paradox, profit maximization, public intellectual, quantitative easing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, restrictive zoning, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Robert Solow, rolodex, Ronald Coase, Ronald Reagan, savings glut, secular stagnation, Silicon Valley, Simon Kuznets, social intelligence, Stanislav Petrov, strikebreaker, structural adjustment programs, Suez canal 1869, surveillance capitalism, The Bell Curve by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Chicago School, The Great Moderation, The Nature of the Firm, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, too big to fail, transaction costs, transatlantic slave trade, transcontinental railway, TSMC, union organizing, vertical integration, W. E. B. Du Bois, Wayback Machine, Yom Kippur War

George Orwell, “In Front of Your Nose,” London Tribune, March 22, 1946, reprinted at Orwell Foundation, www.orwellfoundation.com/the-orwell-foundation/orwell/essays-and-other-works/in-front-of-your-nose. 7. John Lukacs, A Short History of the Twentieth Century, Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013; Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, New York: Free Press, 1992. 8. The best thing I have read about people’s reactions to the figure of Hitler—then and since—is Ron Rosenbaum, Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil, New York: Random House, 1998. 9. I still like, as a general history of Nazism more than any other, William L.


Four Battlegrounds by Paul Scharre

2021 United States Capitol attack, 3D printing, active measures, activist lawyer, AI winter, AlphaGo, amateurs talk tactics, professionals talk logistics, artificial general intelligence, ASML, augmented reality, Automated Insights, autonomous vehicles, barriers to entry, Berlin Wall, Big Tech, bitcoin, Black Lives Matter, Boeing 737 MAX, Boris Johnson, Brexit referendum, business continuity plan, business process, carbon footprint, chief data officer, Citizen Lab, clean water, cloud computing, commoditize, computer vision, coronavirus, COVID-19, crisis actor, crowdsourcing, DALL-E, data is not the new oil, data is the new oil, data science, deep learning, deepfake, DeepMind, Demis Hassabis, Deng Xiaoping, digital map, digital rights, disinformation, Donald Trump, drone strike, dual-use technology, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, endowment effect, fake news, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, future of journalism, future of work, game design, general purpose technology, Geoffrey Hinton, geopolitical risk, George Floyd, global supply chain, GPT-3, Great Leap Forward, hive mind, hustle culture, ImageNet competition, immigration reform, income per capita, interchangeable parts, Internet Archive, Internet of things, iterative process, Jeff Bezos, job automation, Kevin Kelly, Kevin Roose, large language model, lockdown, Mark Zuckerberg, military-industrial complex, move fast and break things, Nate Silver, natural language processing, new economy, Nick Bostrom, one-China policy, Open Library, OpenAI, PalmPilot, Parler "social media", pattern recognition, phenotype, post-truth, purchasing power parity, QAnon, QR code, race to the bottom, RAND corporation, recommendation engine, reshoring, ride hailing / ride sharing, robotic process automation, Rodney Brooks, Rubik’s Cube, self-driving car, Shoshana Zuboff, side project, Silicon Valley, slashdot, smart cities, smart meter, Snapchat, social software, sorting algorithm, South China Sea, sparse data, speech recognition, Steve Bannon, Steven Levy, Stuxnet, supply-chain attack, surveillance capitalism, systems thinking, tech worker, techlash, telemarketer, The Brussels Effect, The Signal and the Noise by Nate Silver, TikTok, trade route, TSMC

“Tiananmen Square Protests,” History.com, updated June 9, 2020, https://www.history.com/topics/china/tiananmen-square; “Tiananmen Square Protest Death Toll ‘was 10,000,’” BBC News, December 23, 2017, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-42465516; “Timeline: What Led to the Tiananmen Square Massacre,” PBS Frontline, June 5, 2019, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/timeline-tiananmen-square/. Thanks to CNAS research assistant Katie Galgano for background research. 68“the triumph of the West”: Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” National Interest 16 (Summer 1989), https://www.jstor.org/stable/24027184. 68wouldn’t “dance on the [Berlin] wall” to celebrate: Richard Fontaine, “American Foreign Policy Could Use More Prudence,” The Atlantic, December 3, 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/12/the-prudence-of-george-h-w-bushs-foreign-policy/577192/. 69“As people have commercial incentives”: Orville Schell, “The Death of Engagement,” The Wire China, June 7, 2020, https://www.thewirechina.com/2020/06/07/the-birth-life-and-death-of-engagement/. 69China’s annual GDP growth: “GDP Growth (Annual %)—China,” World Bank, 2020, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?

Whereas communist regimes in Europe had declined to fire on their people, and fallen to political revolution, the Chinese Communist Party had opted for force. The United States had a choice to make. There was little stomach in Washington for a strategy of containing China. U.S. policymakers saw the collapse of communism in Europe as “the triumph of the West” and “the end of history.” President George H. W. Bush was a sober pragmatist who had quipped he wouldn’t “dance on the [Berlin] wall” to celebrate the end of communism, and likewise cautioned against an “overly emotional” reaction to Tiananmen. As the need to triangulate the global balance of power against the Soviet Union faded, Bush sought to “engage” China, in part citing the powerful momentum of history toward freedom.


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Liberalism at Large: The World According to the Economist by Alex Zevin

"there is no alternative" (TINA), activist fund / activist shareholder / activist investor, affirmative action, Alan Greenspan, anti-communist, Asian financial crisis, bank run, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business climate, business cycle, capital controls, carbon tax, centre right, Chelsea Manning, collective bargaining, Columbine, Corn Laws, corporate governance, corporate social responsibility, creative destruction, credit crunch, David Ricardo: comparative advantage, debt deflation, desegregation, disinformation, disruptive innovation, do well by doing good, Donald Trump, driverless car, Edward Snowden, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, financial innovation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Gini coefficient, Glass-Steagall Act, global supply chain, guns versus butter model, hiring and firing, imperial preference, income inequality, interest rate derivative, invisible hand, It's morning again in America, Jeremy Corbyn, John von Neumann, Joseph Schumpeter, Julian Assange, junk bonds, Khartoum Gordon, land reform, liberal capitalism, liberal world order, light touch regulation, Long Term Capital Management, low interest rates, market bubble, Martin Wolf, means of production, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, Monroe Doctrine, Mont Pelerin Society, moral hazard, Naomi Klein, new economy, New Journalism, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, no-fly zone, Norman Macrae, Northern Rock, Occupy movement, Philip Mirowski, plutocrats, post-war consensus, price stability, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, railway mania, rent control, rent-seeking, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Rosa Parks, Seymour Hersh, Snapchat, Socratic dialogue, Steve Bannon, subprime mortgage crisis, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, too big to fail, trade liberalization, trade route, unbanked and underbanked, underbanked, unorthodox policies, upwardly mobile, War on Poverty, WikiLeaks, Winter of Discontent, Yom Kippur War, young professional

‘If he succeeded, “the West” would no longer mean what it has meant for the last 40 years’; while the DDR in East Germany, its economy ‘long the best in the region’, its Politburo (whose members, implicitly, refused to talk to him) most in tune with its leader, Erich Honecker, ‘looks as if it could go on forever’.139 Less than six months off, he never imagined the fall of the Berlin Wall. Even after it crumbled, a sense of disorientation pervaded his articles. Rejecting the idea that history was at an end, as Francis Fukuyama first opined in 1989, Beedham pointed to real threats – from terrorism to Iraq to Russia – but without his trademark enthusiasm. ‘Perhaps history got its timing wrong’, he mused in 1990. ‘A generation later, the countries of democratic Europe might have been cohesive enough to cope with the consequences’ of the collapse of communism in Europe.140 Could the West retain its edge with no competitors?

Meanwhile, the list of accidents – innocents bombed, aircraft lost – grows longer.’57 Over time, this position softened: ‘the West was not wrong in principle to intervene, whatever the legal position’, reasoned the Economist by April, though it still insisted the bombing was doing more harm than good.58 Emmott had deferred to his more experienced foreign editor during the conflict, but doubts set in soon after, as the glow of victory cast it in a new light – and senior British and American officials pelted the paper with angry letters, stunned by its uncharacteristic criticism. By July, Emmott had reconsidered his foreign policy. ‘The post-communist, post-Kosovo world now taking shape will not be an end-of-history sort of place in which all good democrats can put their feet up. It will be a world of clashing interests and outrageous atrocities, in which democrats will have to get involved.’59 Emmott then demoted Grimond to lead the Britain section, and gave the Bagehot columnist his job. For a world that must be made safe for democracy, Peter David was a better fit: passionate Zionist, whose Lithuanian Jewish parents moved to England from South Africa as critics of apartheid in 1960, Beedham had hired him to cover the Middle East in 1984.

With plenty of that today, its underlying vitality seems assured. The growth of income inequality and fiscal overstretch are also worrying problems, which need to be addressed. But it would be a mistake for liberals to abandon their values in the face of them. A seductive belief in spontaneous economic order, or reliance on providential narratives of the end of history, should be avoided. Rather, politics remains the priority – which means managing contingency and chance, as liberals have always done. In the West, there may be a touch of melancholy in wondering what more is to be accomplished, but that is not true of Brazil, China, India or Iran, where liberals ‘can afford to be more forward-looking and zestful.


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Roller-Coaster: Europe, 1950-2017 by Ian Kershaw

airport security, anti-communist, Apollo 11, Ayatollah Khomeini, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Boris Johnson, Bretton Woods, Brexit referendum, British Empire, business cycle, centre right, colonial rule, cuban missile crisis, deindustrialization, Deng Xiaoping, Donald Trump, European colonialism, eurozone crisis, Exxon Valdez, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, feminist movement, first-past-the-post, fixed income, floating exchange rates, foreign exchange controls, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, full employment, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, income inequality, Jeremy Corbyn, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, labour market flexibility, land reform, late capitalism, Les Trente Glorieuses, liberal capitalism, liberation theology, low interest rates, low skilled workers, mass immigration, means of production, Mikhail Gorbachev, mutually assured destruction, Neil Armstrong, Nelson Mandela, Nixon triggered the end of the Bretton Woods system, North Sea oil, Northern Rock, oil shale / tar sands, oil shock, open borders, post-war consensus, precariat, price stability, public intellectual, quantitative easing, race to the bottom, reserve currency, rising living standards, road to serfdom, Ronald Reagan, Ronald Reagan: Tear down this wall, Sinatra Doctrine, Suez crisis 1956, The Chicago School, trade liberalization, union organizing, upwardly mobile, washing machines reduced drudgery, Washington Consensus, Winter of Discontent, young professional

Three years later, in his celebrated Age of Extremes, Eric Hobsbawm also portrayed the demise of the Soviet Union as the end of the ‘short twentieth century’, an era that had come to a close, one defined by the contest between capitalism and communism. From a conservative perspective, the American political scientist Francis Fukuyama even went so far as to claim that it marked ‘the end of History’. In his book, The End of History and the Last Man, published in 1992, he drew upon a widely read and controversial essay he had published three years earlier, as the sweeping changes in Eastern Europe were taking hold. Fukuyama was not making the patently absurd claim, as some critics naively presumed, that events would not continue, that history in this sense would cease.

NS-Täter in der Bundesrepublik, Frankfurt am Main, 1984. Friedrich, Jörg, Yalu. An den Ufern des dritten Weltkriegs, Berlin, 2007. *Fritzsche, Peter (ed.), The Turbulent World of Franz Göll: An Ordinary Berliner Writes the Twentieth Century, Cambridge MA, 2011. *Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man, London, 1992. Fukuyama, Francis, ‘The End of History?’, The National Interest (Summer 1989), 3–18. Fukuyama, Francis, Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Globalisation of Democracy, London, 2015. Fulbrook Mary, Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR 1949–1989, Oxford, 1995.

It was also widely regarded as the reflection of triumphalist American neo-conservatism. The subsequent course of world history has indeed done little to uphold Fukuyama’s argument. The cultural and political rejection of the principles of liberal democracy in large parts of the world casts doubt on the teleological presumption of the ‘end of History’. The Chinese model of economic liberalism and political authoritarianism, which successfully produced extraordinary growth in China, has posed a serious challenge to those, not just in the West, who long presumed that a market economy would inevitably lead to liberal democracy. The future is as unpredictable as it was when Hegel first determined that ‘History’ had reached its end.


pages: 1,034 words: 241,773

Enlightenment Now: The Case for Reason, Science, Humanism, and Progress by Steven Pinker

3D printing, Abraham Maslow, access to a mobile phone, affirmative action, Affordable Care Act / Obamacare, agricultural Revolution, Albert Einstein, Alfred Russel Wallace, Alignment Problem, An Inconvenient Truth, anti-communist, Anton Chekhov, Arthur Eddington, artificial general intelligence, availability heuristic, Ayatollah Khomeini, basic income, Berlin Wall, Bernie Sanders, biodiversity loss, Black Swan, Bonfire of the Vanities, Brexit referendum, business cycle, capital controls, Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, carbon footprint, carbon tax, Charlie Hebdo massacre, classic study, clean water, clockwork universe, cognitive bias, cognitive dissonance, Columbine, conceptual framework, confounding variable, correlation does not imply causation, creative destruction, CRISPR, crowdsourcing, cuban missile crisis, Daniel Kahneman / Amos Tversky, dark matter, data science, decarbonisation, degrowth, deindustrialization, dematerialisation, demographic transition, Deng Xiaoping, distributed generation, diversified portfolio, Donald Trump, Doomsday Clock, double helix, Eddington experiment, Edward Jenner, effective altruism, Elon Musk, en.wikipedia.org, end world poverty, endogenous growth, energy transition, European colonialism, experimental subject, Exxon Valdez, facts on the ground, fake news, Fall of the Berlin Wall, first-past-the-post, Flynn Effect, food miles, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, frictionless, frictionless market, Garrett Hardin, germ theory of disease, Gini coefficient, Great Leap Forward, Hacker Conference 1984, Hans Rosling, hedonic treadmill, helicopter parent, Herbert Marcuse, Herman Kahn, Hobbesian trap, humanitarian revolution, Ignaz Semmelweis: hand washing, income inequality, income per capita, Indoor air pollution, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), invention of writing, Jaron Lanier, Joan Didion, job automation, Johannes Kepler, John Snow's cholera map, Kevin Kelly, Khan Academy, knowledge economy, l'esprit de l'escalier, Laplace demon, launch on warning, life extension, long peace, longitudinal study, Louis Pasteur, Mahbub ul Haq, Martin Wolf, mass incarceration, meta-analysis, Michael Shellenberger, microaggression, Mikhail Gorbachev, minimum wage unemployment, moral hazard, mutually assured destruction, Naomi Klein, Nate Silver, Nathan Meyer Rothschild: antibiotics, negative emissions, Nelson Mandela, New Journalism, Norman Mailer, nuclear taboo, nuclear winter, obamacare, ocean acidification, Oklahoma City bombing, open economy, opioid epidemic / opioid crisis, paperclip maximiser, Paris climate accords, Paul Graham, peak oil, Peter Singer: altruism, Peter Thiel, post-truth, power law, precautionary principle, precision agriculture, prediction markets, public intellectual, purchasing power parity, radical life extension, Ralph Nader, randomized controlled trial, Ray Kurzweil, rent control, Republic of Letters, Richard Feynman, road to serfdom, Robert Gordon, Rodney Brooks, rolodex, Ronald Reagan, Rory Sutherland, Saturday Night Live, science of happiness, Scientific racism, Second Machine Age, secular stagnation, self-driving car, sharing economy, Silicon Valley, Silicon Valley ideology, Simon Kuznets, Skype, smart grid, Social Justice Warrior, sovereign wealth fund, sparse data, stem cell, Stephen Hawking, Steve Bannon, Steven Pinker, Stewart Brand, Stuxnet, supervolcano, synthetic biology, tech billionaire, technological determinism, technological singularity, Ted Kaczynski, Ted Nordhaus, TED Talk, The Rise and Fall of American Growth, the scientific method, The Signal and the Noise by Nate Silver, The Spirit Level, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, The Wisdom of Crowds, Thomas Kuhn: the structure of scientific revolutions, Thomas Malthus, total factor productivity, Tragedy of the Commons, union organizing, universal basic income, University of East Anglia, Unsafe at Any Speed, Upton Sinclair, uranium enrichment, urban renewal, W. E. B. Du Bois, War on Poverty, We wanted flying cars, instead we got 140 characters, women in the workforce, working poor, World Values Survey, Y2K

The Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989, freeing the nations of Eastern Europe to establish democratic governments, and communism imploded in the Soviet Union in 1991, clearing space for Russia and most of the other republics to make the transition. Some African countries threw off their strongmen, and the last European colonies to gain independence, mostly in the Caribbean and Oceania, opted for democracy as their first form of government. In 1989 the political scientist Francis Fukuyama published a famous essay in which he proposed that liberal democracy represented “the end of history,” not because nothing would ever happen again but because the world was coming to a consensus over the humanly best form of governance and no longer had to fight over it.8 Fukuyama coined a runaway meme: in the decades since his essay appeared, books and articles have announced “the end of” nature, science, faith, poverty, reason, money, men, lawyers, illness, the free market, and sex.

Citizens in democracies are healthier: Besley 2006. Citizens in democracies are better educated: Roser 2016b. 5. Three waves of democratization: Huntington 1991. 6. Democracy in retreat: Mueller 1999, p. 214. 7. Democracy is obsolete: quotes from Mueller 1999, p. 214. 8. “The end of history”: Fukuyama 1989. 9. For quotations, see Levitsky & Way 2015. 10. Not getting the concept of democracy: Welzel 2013, p. 66, n. 11. 11. This is a problem for the annual counts by the democracy-tracking organization Freedom House; see Levitsky & Way 2015; Munck & Verkuilen 2002; Roser 2016b. 12.

Critical Review, 11, 407–67. Fryer, R. G. 2016. An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use of force. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Papers, 1–63. Fukuda, K. 2013. A happiness study using age-period-cohort framework. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14, 135–53. Fukuyama, F. 1989. The end of history? National Interest, Summer. Furman, J. 2005. Wal-mart: A progressive success story. https://www.mackinac.org/archives/2006/walmart.pdf. Furman, J. 2014. Poverty and the tax code. Democracy: A Journal of Ideas, 32, 8–22. Future of Life Institute. 2017. Accidental nuclear war: A timeline of close calls. https://futureoflife.org/background/nuclear-close-calls-a-timeline/.


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The Atlantic and Its Enemies: A History of the Cold War by Norman Stone

affirmative action, Alvin Toffler, Arthur Marwick, Ayatollah Khomeini, bank run, banking crisis, Berlin Wall, Bernie Madoff, Big bang: deregulation of the City of London, Bonfire of the Vanities, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business cycle, central bank independence, Deng Xiaoping, desegregation, disinformation, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, European colonialism, facts on the ground, Fall of the Berlin Wall, financial deregulation, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Frederick Winslow Taylor, full employment, gentrification, Gunnar Myrdal, Henry Ford's grandson gave labor union leader Walter Reuther a tour of the company’s new, automated factory…, Herbert Marcuse, illegal immigration, income per capita, interchangeable parts, Jane Jacobs, Joseph Schumpeter, junk bonds, labour mobility, land reform, long peace, low interest rates, mass immigration, means of production, Michael Milken, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Mitch Kapor, Money creation, new economy, Norman Mailer, North Sea oil, oil shock, Paul Samuelson, Phillips curve, Ponzi scheme, popular capitalism, price mechanism, price stability, RAND corporation, rent-seeking, Ronald Reagan, Savings and loan crisis, scientific management, Seymour Hersh, Silicon Valley, special drawing rights, Steve Jobs, Strategic Defense Initiative, strikebreaker, Suez crisis 1956, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, trade liberalization, trickle-down economics, V2 rocket, War on Poverty, Washington Consensus, Yom Kippur War, éminence grise

So had the invasion of Afghanistan. And two very vulnerable places, Chile and Turkey, had shown that the Soviet formula was quite misplaced. The eighties economy was defeating not just Marx, but Lenin and Mao Tsetung as well. The most characteristic book of the eighties was written not long after the decade ended, Francis Fukuyama’s End of History (1992). The title seemed funny when the book appeared, and seemed even funnier afterwards, but it was not senseless. The claim (a quote from Hegel) was that democracy and capitalism (‘free markets’) had spread from period to period after the Second World War, that dictatorships, Communism, wars, etc. would be things of the past, and that the world would move more and more in the direction of, say, Denmark.

He braved extreme unpopularity, deserved well of the Republic, and received the best sort of flattery, in that there are now two dozen imitations of Bilkent in Turkey, and private universities all over the European area. America in a Turkish mirror made for a contrast with Chile. In Chile there was a general in charge, and there were no elections for ten years while Chicago economists sorted things out. Then she experienced the end of history. Turkey did not, although there was a brave try. There, the army did not want formal power: no Pinochet. It was happier with professors of Political Science, and wanted figureheads. Turhan Feyzioğlu had thought that he would be indispensable to the generals, as an old, reliable republican alternative to the wayward Ecevit.

Fortunelist Foster, William Foucault, Michel, Madness and Civilization Fouchet, Christian Fourier, Charles Fowler, Henry France: agriculture aircraft industry and Algerian oil Algerian war aristocracy austerity programmes automobile industry balance of payments banking system Bibliothèque Nationale bicentenary of Revolution birth rates bourgeoisie Catholic Church Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) civil service Code Napoléon colonies Communist Party cultural institutions currency controls Depression (1930s) and division of Germany economic recovery and success education system (see also universities) and EEC/EU and Egypt election of 1958 and establishment of NATO and European Defence Community Fifth Republic, establishment of film industry First World War Fourth Republic, fall of franc fort Franco-German reconciliation Free French gold reserves ‘Grand Schools’ and Helsinki conference (1975) immigration imports Indo-China war industrial unrest inflation intelligentsia and Kurdish nationalism and Marshall Plan Marxism Monnet Plan nationalization of industry Nazi occupation nuclear power nuclear weapons peasantry pieds noirs Popular Front post-war claims to German resources post-war shortages and rationing productivity levels protectionism republicanism resistance to American cultural domination Revolution (1789-99) revolution of 1830 revolution of 1848 and Romania Second Empire and spread of Marxism Stavisky scandal (1934) steel production strikes student demonstrations (1968) and Suez crisis and ‘Swedish model’ technological developments television theatre Third Republic trade unions unemployment universities UNR (Union pour la Nouvelle République) Vichy government war damage withdrawal from NATO military command zone of occupation in Germany Franco, Francisco Frankfurt Frankfurt School Free Democrats (German; FDP) Free French freeways French Foreign Legion French language: anglicization of attempts to promote in Belgium French Revolution bicentenary Friedan, Betty, The Feminine Mystique Friedman, Milton ‘Fritalux’ (proposed European free-trade area) Frum, David Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History Fulbright, J. William Fumaroli, Marc G7 (group of industrial nations) G10 (group of industrial nations) Gaddafi, Muammar al Gagarin, Yuri Gage, Nicholas, Eleni Gaillard, Félix Galata Galbraith, John Kenneth Affluent Society Galkovskiy, V. N. Galtieri, Leopoldo Galtung, Johan Galvani, Luigi Gandhi, Mahatma Gansel, Norbert GAP (South-Eastern Anatolia Project) Garaudy, Roger gas, natural Gates, William ‘Bill’ GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Gaulle, Charles de see de Gaulle, Charles Gavras, Costa Gdańsk Gencer, Leyla Genentech (biotechnology corporation) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) General Electric General Motors Geneva Geneva conference (1954) Geneva conference (1958) Genghiz Khan Genscher, Hans-Dietrich George II, King of Greece Georgia Gerasimov, Gennady German Customs Union (Zollverein) German Democratic Republic see East Germany German empire German language, anglicization of Germany, Weimar Republic Germany, Nazi: Allied bombing of capitulation concentration camps eugenics exports inflation invasion of Greece invasion of USSR local political supervisors protectionism reduction of unemployment rise of Nazis war criminals Germany, post-war occupied: Allied occupation zones (‘Bizonia’/‘Trizonia’) ‘Bank of German Lands’ black market bomb damage Christian Democrats coal production Communist Party Communist takeover in east currency reform division exports inflation and Marshall Plan prisoners of war in USSR reparations shortages Social Democrats Soviet occupation zone steel production territorial losses trade unions winter weather of 1946-7 see also East Germany; West Germany Germany, reunified Germinal (film) Gerő, Ernő Gerschenkron, Alexander Ghana Ghibellines Giap, Vo Nguyen Gielgud, Sir John Gierek, Edward Gillette (corporation) Gillingham, John Ginsborg, Paul Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry Gladstone, William Ewart Glasgow High School Royal Technical College glasnost Glotz, Peter Glubb Pasha Godesberg program (German SPD) Godley, Wynne Gogol, Nikolai, Dead Souls Gold Coast Gold Standard Golden Bull (1356) Golden Ring (Russia) Goldsmith, Sir James Goldwater, Barry Gomułka, Władysław Gone With the Wind (film) Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge Gorbachev, Mikhail: and Afghan war anti-alcohol campaign background and character and collapse of East Germany and coup of August 1991 elected General Secretary glasnost and perestroyka international reputation Malta summit (1989) meeting with Margaret Thatcher (1984) ‘our common European home’ and Poland Gordievsky, Oleg Goths Gottwald, Klement Gow, Ian Goytisolo, Juan Gramsci, Antonio Great Britain see Britain Great Society (Johnson) failure of Greece: backwardness civil war Colonels’ coup (1967) Communists and Cyprus EEC membership intelligentsia and Kurdish nationalism nation statehood Nazi occupation nineteenth-century history Ottoman Empire peasantry Second World War strategic importance US aid and war in Afghanistan war with Turkey (1919-22) Greek diaspora Greek Orthodox Church Greene, Graham The Comedians Greer, Germaine The Female Eunuch Grenada Gromyko, Andrey Gross, John Gruchko, Viktor Guantanamo (US naval base) Guardian (newspaper) Guatemala Gudenus, Count Guelfs Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’ cult of Guillaume, Günter Guillén, Nicolás Gulf (oil company) Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964) Gulf War (1990-91) Gummer, John Gürsel, Cemal gypsies Hacı Bektaş Haig, Alexander Hailufeng soviet Haiphong Haiti Halberstam, David Halifax, E.


Arabs: A 3,000 Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires by Tim Mackintosh-Smith

Ayatollah Khomeini, British Empire, colonial rule, disinformation, domestication of the camel, Donald Trump, European colonialism, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, George Santayana, invention of movable type, Kickstarter, lateral thinking, liberation theology, Malacca Straits, mass immigration, New Urbanism, out of africa, Pax Mongolica, plutocrats, post-truth, Scramble for Africa, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, trade route

There was no concept of a Holy Spirit to inspire the community world without end and to reinterpret revelation through successive and changing ages. Muhammad’s state was thus extraordinarily centralized, not geographically but temporally. History, in a sense, had ended, or entered an eternal present that would become an ever-present past. As with Francis Fukuyama’s more recent pronouncements, however, rumours of the end of history are usually exaggerated. With the end of revelation, a major theme of history – God’s relationship with His creation – had indeed ended. But earthly events continued. The clock had stopped, but time went on. Ibn Khaldun was to write with 750 years of hindsight that ‘Arabs can only attain kingship through prophecy’.

For traditional badw in Hadramawt and elsewhere, to replace your string of camels with a Bedford lorry was acceptable. But to beat your sword or rifle into a ploughshare has always been anathema; it is to cease to be armigerous, arms-bearing, honourable. Peace, passivity, settlement, quiescence, cultivation, following the furrow, living by the sweat of one’s brow, mean the end of history in the Fukuyaman sense. And yet, for a couple of decades, it did seem that the old time was over. Of the Hadrami badw in the decades of British-brokered peace, one observer who thought he knew them well said, ‘They are dead’. The announcement was premature; time was only on pause. THE MUDDLED EAST As the last of the Ottomans lived out his Parisian exile, arranging his butterfly collection, many Arabs regretted the end of the slow, simple centuries in the penumbra of the Sublime Porte.


pages: 1,309 words: 300,991

Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations by Norman Davies

anti-communist, Berlin Wall, British Empire, Celtic Tiger, classic study, Corn Laws, en.wikipedia.org, energy security, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, labour mobility, land tenure, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, oil rush, oil shale / tar sands, Red Clydeside, Ronald Reagan, Skype, special economic zone, trade route, urban renewal, WikiLeaks

Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford, 1997); idem, Seven Years that Changed the World: Perestroika in Perspective (Oxford, 2007). 82. Leonid Batkin, as quoted by Shane, Dismantling Utopia, p. 5. 83. Edward Lucas, The New Cold War: How the Kremlin Threatens Both Russia and the West (London, 2007). 84. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’ National Interest, 16 (1989). 85. Paul Kennedy, in The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London, 1988). 86. Michael Cox, US Foreign Policy after the Cold War: Superpower without a Mission (London, 1995); Bill Emmott, Rivals: The Power Struggle between China, India and Japan (London, 2008); Martin Jacques, When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the End of the Western World (London, 2009); Lauren Phillips, International Politics in 2030: The Transformative Power of Large Developing Countries (Bonn, 2008). 87.

Others, including Estonia, declined, and within a short time were heading eagerly towards membership both of NATO and of the European Union. The vacuum in international politics took at least a decade to fill. Some American analysts, preoccupied for the whole of their adult lives by rivalry with the Soviet Union, assumed that US-led capitalist democracy would henceforth have no more major competitors, that they had reached the ‘End of History’.84 Others concluded that the twenty-first century would be the ‘American Century’. All of this was questionable. It was just as possible to argue, as one prescient historian did in 1988, that American power had passed its peak,85 that the US lead had been squandered by a neo-conservative administration, or that the new century heralded the rise of new powers like China, India and Brazil.86 The geopolitics of the world were changing from ‘bipolar’ to polygonal.


Vanished Kingdoms by Norman Davies

anti-communist, Berlin Wall, British Empire, Celtic Tiger, classic study, Corn Laws, en.wikipedia.org, energy security, Evgeny Morozov, failed state, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, labour mobility, land tenure, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, oil rush, oil shale / tar sands, Red Clydeside, Ronald Reagan, Skype, special economic zone, trade route, urban renewal, WikiLeaks

Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford, 1997); idem, Seven Years that Changed the World: Perestroika in Perspective (Oxford, 2007). 82. Leonid Batkin, as quoted by Shane, Dismantling Utopia, p. 5. 83. Edward Lucas, The New Cold War: How the Kremlin Threatens Both Russia and the West (London, 2007). 84. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’ National Interest, 16 (1989). 85. Paul Kennedy, in The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London, 1988). 86. Michael Cox, US Foreign Policy after the Cold War: Superpower without a Mission (London, 1995); Bill Emmott, Rivals: The Power Struggle between China, India and Japan (London, 2008); Martin Jacques, When China Rules the World: The Rise of the Middle Kingdom and the End of the Western World (London, 2009); Lauren Phillips, International Politics in 2030: The Transformative Power of Large Developing Countries (Bonn, 2008). 87.

Others, including Estonia, declined, and within a short time were heading eagerly towards membership both of NATO and of the European Union. The vacuum in international politics took at least a decade to fill. Some American analysts, preoccupied for the whole of their adult lives by rivalry with the Soviet Union, assumed that US-led capitalist democracy would henceforth have no more major competitors, that they had reached the ‘End of History’.84 Others concluded that the twenty-first century would be the ‘American Century’. All of this was questionable. It was just as possible to argue, as one prescient historian did in 1988, that American power had passed its peak,85 that the US lead had been squandered by a neo-conservative administration, or that the new century heralded the rise of new powers like China, India and Brazil.86 The geopolitics of the world were changing from ‘bipolar’ to polygonal.


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A Classless Society: Britain in the 1990s by Alwyn W. Turner

Alan Greenspan, Berlin Wall, Bob Geldof, Boris Johnson, bread and circuses, British Empire, call centre, centre right, deindustrialization, demand response, Desert Island Discs, endogenous growth, Etonian, eurozone crisis, facts on the ground, Fall of the Berlin Wall, falling living standards, first-past-the-post, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, friendly fire, full employment, gentrification, global village, greed is good, inflation targeting, lateral thinking, means of production, millennium bug, minimum wage unemployment, moral panic, negative equity, Neil Kinnock, Nelson Mandela, no-fly zone, offshore financial centre, old-boy network, period drama, post-war consensus, Ronald Reagan, sexual politics, Stephen Fry, Stephen Hawking, upwardly mobile, Winter of Discontent, women in the workforce

As a police officer commented in an episode of Between the Lines, looking at an anti-cuts demonstration outside a town hall: ‘It’s hardly ’84, is it?’ A number of factors contributed to this decline, most spectacularly the unqualified victory of the West in the Cold War, and the subsequent collapse of communism in the Eastern bloc. In 1989, while the Berlin Wall was still standing, the American commentator Francis Fukuyama had published his essay ‘The End of History’, arguing that the world’s ideological conflicts had been resolved in favour of capitalist democracy. Whether or not this were true, the proposition found a receptive audience and confirmed what had become unavoidably apparent over the last decade: that the intellectual tide had turned in favour of free-market economics.


Europe: A History by Norman Davies

agricultural Revolution, Albert Einstein, anti-communist, Berlin Wall, bread and circuses, Bretton Woods, British Empire, business climate, centre right, charter city, classic study, clean water, Columbian Exchange, conceptual framework, continuation of politics by other means, Corn Laws, cuban missile crisis, Defenestration of Prague, discovery of DNA, disinformation, double entry bookkeeping, Dr. Strangelove, Edmond Halley, Edward Lloyd's coffeehouse, equal pay for equal work, Eratosthenes, Etonian, European colonialism, experimental economics, financial independence, finite state, Francis Fukuyama: the end of history, Francisco Pizarro, full employment, gentleman farmer, global village, Gregor Mendel, Honoré de Balzac, Index librorum prohibitorum, interchangeable parts, invention of agriculture, invention of movable type, Isaac Newton, James Hargreaves, James Watt: steam engine, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Johannes Kepler, John Harrison: Longitude, joint-stock company, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, land reform, liberation theology, long peace, Louis Blériot, Louis Daguerre, Mahatma Gandhi, mass immigration, Mikhail Gorbachev, military-industrial complex, Monroe Doctrine, Murano, Venice glass, music of the spheres, New Urbanism, North Sea oil, offshore financial centre, Peace of Westphalia, Plato's cave, popular capitalism, Potemkin village, purchasing power parity, Ralph Waldo Emerson, road to serfdom, sceptred isle, Scramble for Africa, spinning jenny, Suez canal 1869, Suez crisis 1956, Thales of Miletus, the scientific method, The Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, trade route, transatlantic slave trade, Transnistria, urban planning, urban sprawl, W. E. B. Du Bois

Winiecki, The Structural Legacy of the Soviet-type Economies (London, 1992). 39. Arpad Goncz, quoted by Garton Ash, op. cit, 60. 40. Conor Cruise O’Brien, ‘A Grave marked Maastricht’, The Times, 30 Apr. 1992. 41. Gyorgi Konrad, in Antipolitics (London, 1982). 42. Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’ in The National Interest (1989); also ‘The End of History Is Still Nigh’, Independent, 3 Mar. 1992. 43. Zbigniew Brzeziński, speaking at Bologna, Feb. 1992; see J. Moskwa, ‘Brzeziński o trzech Europach’, Nowy świat, 3 Mar. 1992. 44. Prof. Ken Jowitt (UC Berkeley) at the International Security Conference, Yale University, 2–4 Apr. 1992.

Moscow’s retreat from Eastern Europe and from critical regions such as that of oil-rich Baku would create new arenas where the new Russia might feel compelled to resist expanding Western firms and institutions. To some, the common denominator seemed to lie in the universal attachment to liberal democracy and free market economics. The Western victory appeared to be so complete that one academic gained instant fame by asking whether the world had reached ‘the End of History’.42 Nothing could have been further from the truth: Europe was locked in an intense period of historical change with no end in view. In the eyes of one ex-statesman, the revolution of 1989–91 had given rise to three Europes. ‘Europe One’ consisted of the established democracies of Western Europe.